缅甸 / Myanmar -（全文）中英文维基百科词条融合

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0. 概述

辽观注：此标题是我们在搬运、整合过程中添加的。

0.1 概况表格

辽观注：此标题是我们在搬运、整合过程中添加的。

Republic of the Union of Myanmar【缅甸联邦共和国】 ပြည်ထောင်စု သမ္မတ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော်‌ (Burmese【缅语】) Pyidăuzu Thammăda Myăma Năingandaw
Capital【首都】	Naypyidaw[b] / 内比都 21°00′N 96°00′E 【英文词条原注b：Officially spelled “Nay Pyi Taw”（官方发音）】
Largest city【最大城市】	Yangon[a]【仰光】 【英文词条原注a：Formerly known as “Rangoon”（老拼写）】
Official language 【官方语言】	Burmese【缅语】
Recognised regional languages[1] 【认可的地方语言】	Chin / 钦语 Kachin / 克钦语 Karen / 克伦语 Kayah / 克耶语 Mon / 孟语 Rakhine / 若开语 Shan / 钦语
Ethnic groups (2019[2][3][4]) 【族群（2019年）】	68.78% Bamar / 缅族 6.69% Kayin / 克伦族 4.61% Rakhine / 若开族 4.51% Shan / 掸族 2.19% Mon / 孟族 2.09% Chin / 钦族 1.50% Kachin / 克钦族 0.39% Kayah / 克耶族 9.24% Others【其他】
Religion【宗教】	89.8% Buddhism (official)[5] / 佛教（官方宗教） 6.2% Christianity / 基督宗教 2.3% Islam / 伊斯兰教 1.6% other[6] / 其他
Demonym(s) 【对当地人的称呼（英语）】	Burmese Myanma[7]
Government【政府】	Unitary assembly-independent republic under a military junta 【军政府统治下的单一制议会独立共和国】 国家管理委员会（威权军政府，2021年缅甸军事政变后实际掌控政权，有争议）
• President【总统】	Min Aung Hlaing (acting) / 敏昂莱大将（总司令）（在任）
• SAC Chairman and Prime Minister 【国家管理委员会主席兼总理】	Min Aung Hlaing / 敏昂莱大将（总司令）
• SAC Vice Chairman and Deputy Prime Minister 【国家管理委员会副主席兼副总理】	Soe Win[c] / 梭温副大将（副司令）
Legislature【立法机构】	State Administration Council【联邦议会】
Formation / 建立
• Pagan era / 蒲甘王国	23 December 849 / 849年12月23日
• Taungoo era / 东吁王朝	16 October 1510 / 1510年10月16日
• Konbaung era / 贡榜王朝	29 February 1752 / 1752年2月29日
• Colonial era 【被英国殖民】	1 January 1886【1886年1月1日】
• Independence from the United Kingdom / 自英国独立	4 January 1948 / 1948年1月4日
• 1962 coup d’état / 奈温政变	2 March 1962 / 1962年3月2日
• 1988 coup d’état / 8888民主运动	18 September 1988 / 1988年8月8日
• Current constitution / 2008宪法施行	31 January 2011 / 2011年1月31日
• 2021 coup d’état / 敏昂莱政变	1 February 2021 / 2021年2月1日
Area / 面积
• Total【总计】	676,579 km2 (261,229 sq mi) (39th)【676,578平方公里（第40位）】
• Water (%) 【水域率（百分比）】	3.06
Population / 人口
• 2022 estimate 【2022年估计】	55,770,232[11] (26th)
• Density【人口密度】	196.8/sq mi (76.0/km2) (125th)
GDP (PPP)【国内生产总值（购买力平价）】	2024 estimate【2024年估计值】
• Total【总计】	$283.572 billion[12] (64th)【2835.72亿美元（第64位）[12]】
• Per capita【人均】	$5,200[13] (146th)
GDP (nominal)【国内生产总值（名义/汇率）】	2024 estimate【2024年估计值】
• Total【总计】	$68.006 billion[14] (87th)【680.06亿美元（第87位）[14]】
• Per capita【人均】	$1,250[15] (167th)
Gini (2017) 【基尼系数（2017年）】	30.7[16] medium inequality (106th)【中等程度的不平等（第106位）】
HDI (2022) 【人类发展指数（2022年）】	0.608[17] medium (144th)【中等（第144位）】
Currency【货币】	Kyat (K) (MMK)【缅元（K）（MMK）】
Time zone【时区】	UTC+06:30 (MMT)
Drives on / 行驶方位	right【靠右行驶】
Calling code【电话区号】	+95
ISO 3166 code / ISO 3166码	MM
Internet TLD / 互联网顶级域	.mm

0.2 文字说明

辽观注：此标题是我们在搬运、整合过程中添加的。

缅甸联邦共和国（缅甸语：ပြည်ထောင်စုသမ္မတမြန်မာနိုင်ငံ），通称缅甸（缅甸语：မြန်မာ）^[4]，是一个位于中南半岛西部的单一制共和国（仅是国名取自联邦），亦为东南亚国家联盟成员国，人口约5,567万（世界排名第26位^[5]），首都为内比都（2005年以前设于最大城市仰光）。

缅甸南临安达曼海，西南濒孟加拉湾，海岸线总长2,832公里，占国境线总长约二分之一；西北紧靠印度和孟加拉，东北接壤中华人民共和国，东南紧邻泰国与老挝，国土面积约67.65万平方公里，是世界上第40大国家、东南亚第二大国，森林覆盖率超过50%^[6]。

Myanmar,^[d] officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar^[e] and also known as Burma (the official name until 1989), is a country in Southeast Asia. It is the largest country by area in Mainland Southeast Asia and has a population of about 55 million.^[18] It is bordered by Bangladesh and India to its northwest, China to its northeast, Laos and Thailand to its east and southeast, and the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal to its south and southwest. The country’s capital city is Naypyidaw, and its largest city is Yangon (formerly Rangoon).^[19]
【参考译文】缅甸[d]，正式名称为缅甸联邦共和国[e]，也称为缅甸（1989 年之前的官方名称），是东南亚的一个国家。它是东南亚大陆面积最大的国家，人口约 5500 万。[18] 它的西北与孟加拉国和印度接壤，东北部与中国接壤，东部和东南部与老挝和泰国接壤，南部和西南部濒临安达曼海和孟加拉湾。该国首都是内比都，最大城市是仰光。[19]

【英文词条原注d】Burmese: မြန်မာ; MLCTS: Mranma, pronounced [mjəmà]

【英文词条原注e】Burmese: ပြည်ထောင်စု သမ္မတ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော်; MLCTS: Pranyhtaungcu. Sa.ma.ta. Mranma Nuingngamtau; pronounced [pjìdàʊɴzṵ θàɴməda̰ mjəmà nàɪɴŋàɴdɔ̀])

Early civilisations in the area included the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu city-states in Upper Myanmar and the Mon kingdoms in Lower Myanmar.^[20] In the 9th century, the Bamar people entered the upper Irrawaddy valley, and following the establishment of the Pagan Kingdom in the 1050s, the Burmese language, culture, and Theravada Buddhism slowly became dominant in the country. The Pagan Kingdom fell to Mongol invasions, and several warring states emerged. In the 16th century, reunified by the Taungoo dynasty, the country became the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia for a short period.^[21] The early 19th-century Konbaung dynasty ruled over an area that included modern Myanmar and briefly controlled Manipur and Assam as well. The British East India Company seized control of the administration of Myanmar after three Anglo-Burmese Wars in the 19th century, and the country became a British colony. After a brief Japanese occupation, Myanmar was reconquered by the Allies. On 4 January 1948, Myanmar declared independence under the terms of the Burma Independence Act 1947.
【参考译文】早期在这个地区存在的文明包括缅甸北部的藏缅语系蒲人城邦和缅甸南部的孟族王国。[20] 9世纪时，骠人进入伊洛瓦底江上游地区，并在11世纪50年代蒲甘王国建立后，缅甸语、文化和上座部佛教逐渐在这个国家占据主导地位。蒲甘王国在蒙古入侵下覆灭，随后出现了多个交战的国家。16世纪时，由东固王朝重新统一后，该国一度成为东南亚历史上最大的帝国。[21] 19世纪初，贡榜王朝统治的区域包括现代缅甸，并且短暂控制了曼尼普尔和阿萨姆。经过19世纪的三次英缅战争，英国东印度公司夺取了缅甸的管理权，缅甸成为英国的殖民地。经过短暂的日本占领期后，缅甸被盟军重新夺回。1948年1月4日，根据《1947年缅甸独立法案》，缅甸宣布独立。

Myanmar’s post-independence history has continued to be checkered by unrest and conflict. The coup d’état in 1962 resulted in a military dictatorship under the Burma Socialist Programme Party. On 8 August 1988, the 8888 Uprising then resulted in a nominal transition to a multi-party system two years later, but the country’s post-uprising military council refused to cede power, and has continued to rule the country through to the present. The country remains riven by ethnic strife among its myriad ethnic groups and has one of the world’s longest-running ongoing civil wars. The United Nations and several other organisations have reported consistent and systemic human rights violations in the country.^[22] In 2011, the military junta was officially dissolved following a 2010 general election, and a nominally civilian government was installed. Aung San Suu Kyi and political prisoners were released and the 2015 Myanmar general election was held, leading to improved foreign relations and eased economic sanctions,^[23] although the country’s treatment of its ethnic minorities, particularly in connection with the Rohingya conflict, continued to be a source of international tension and consternation.^[24] Following the 2020 Myanmar general election, in which Aung San Suu Kyi’s party won a clear majority in both houses, the Burmese military (Tatmadaw) again seized power in a coup d’état.^[25] The coup, which was widely condemned by the international community, led to continuous ongoing widespread protests in Myanmar and has been marked by violent political repression by the military, as well as a larger outbreak of the civil war.^[26] The military also arrested Aung San Suu Kyi in order to remove her from public life, and charged her with crimes ranging from corruption to violation of COVID-19 protocols; all of the charges against her are “politically motivated” according to independent observers.^[27]
【参考译文】缅甸独立后的历史继续充满动乱和冲突。1962 年的政变导致缅甸社会主义纲领党领导下的军事独裁统治。1988 年 8 月 8 日，8888 起义导致两年后名义上过渡到多党制，但该国起义后的军事委员会拒绝放弃权力，并继续统治该国直到现在。该国仍然因众多民族之间的种族冲突而四分五裂，是世界上持续时间最长的内战之一。联合国和其他几个组织报告称，该国存在持续和系统性的侵犯人权行为。[22] 2011 年，军政府在 2010 年大选后正式解散，并成立了名义上的文官政府。昂山素季和政治犯获得释放，缅甸 2015 年举行大选，外交关系改善，经济制裁放松[23]，但该国对待少数民族的方式，特别是在罗兴亚冲突中的方式，继续引起国际社会的紧张和恐慌。[24] 在 2020 年缅甸大选中，昂山素季领导的政党在参众两院获得明显多数席位，随后缅甸军方（Tatmadaw）再次发动政变夺取政权。[25] 这场政变遭到国际社会的广泛谴责，导致缅甸国内持续发生大规模抗议活动，军方实施暴力政治镇压，并引发更大规模的内战。[26] 军方还逮捕了昂山素季，以将她从公众生活中移除，并指控她犯有从腐败到违反 COVID-19 协议等多种罪行；独立观察员认为，对她的所有指控都是“出于政治动机”。[27]

Myanmar is a member of the East Asia Summit, Non-Aligned Movement, ASEAN, and BIMSTEC, but it is not a member of the Commonwealth of Nations despite once being part of the British Empire. Myanmar is a Dialogue Partner of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. The country is very rich in natural resources, such as jade, gems, oil, natural gas, teak and other minerals, as well as also endowed with renewable energy, having the highest solar power potential compared to other countries of the Great Mekong Subregion.^[28] However, Myanmar has long suffered from instability, factional violence, corruption, poor infrastructure, as well as a long history of colonial exploitation with little regard to human development.^[29] In 2013, its GDP (nominal) stood at US$56.7 billion and its GDP (PPP) at US$221.5 billion.^[30] The income gap in Myanmar is among the widest in the world, as a large proportion of the economy is controlled by cronies of the military junta.^[31] Myanmar is one of the least developed countries; as of 2020, according to the Human Development Index, it ranks 147 out of 189 countries in terms of human development, the lowest in Southeast Asia.^[32] Since 2021, more than 600,000 people were displaced across Myanmar due to the surge in violence post-coup, with more than 3 million people in dire need of humanitarian assistance.^[33]
【参考译文】缅甸是东亚峰会、不结盟运动、东盟和孟加拉湾多领域经济与技术合作组织的成员，但曾是大英帝国的一部分，并不是英联邦的成员。缅甸是上海合作组织的对话伙伴。缅甸拥有丰富的自然资源，如玉石、宝石、石油、天然气、柚木和其他矿产，还拥有丰富的可再生能源，与湄公河次区域的其他国家相比，缅甸拥有最高的太阳能潜力。[28] 然而，缅甸长期以来一直饱受动荡、派系暴力、腐败、基础设施薄弱以及长期殖民剥削的历史之苦，很少考虑人类发展。[29] 2013 年，缅甸国内生产总值（名义）为 567 亿美元，国内生产总值（购买力平价）为​​ 2215 亿美元。[30]缅甸是世界上收入差距最大的国家之一，因为该国经济的很大一部分由军政府的亲信控制。[31] 缅甸是最不发达国家之一；截至 2020 年，根据人类发展指数，缅甸在 189 个国家中的人类发展排名为 147 位，是东南亚最低的。[32] 自 2021 年以来，由于政变后暴力事件激增，缅甸全国各地有 60 多万人流离失所，300 多万人急需人道主义援助。[33]

1. 名称由来 | Etymology

Main article: Names of Myanmar【主条目：缅甸的名称】

The name of the country has been a matter of dispute and disagreement, particularly in the early 21st century, focusing mainly on the political legitimacy of those using Myanmar versus Burma.^[34][35] Both names derive from the earlier Burmese Mranma or Mramma, an ethnonym for the majority Burman ethnic group, of uncertain etymology.^[36] The terms are also popularly thought to derive from Sanskrit Brahma Desha, ‘land of Brahma‘.^[37]
【参考译文】该国的名称一直是争议和分歧的焦点，特别是在21世纪初，主要集中在“Myanmar”与“Burma”这两个词的政治合法性上。[34][35]这两个名字都来源于更早的缅甸语Mranma或Mramma，是多数缅甸民族群体的族称，其词源不确定。[36]这两个词也普遍被认为来源于梵语Brahma Desha，意为“梵天的土地”。[37]

In 1989, the military government officially changed the English translations of many names dating back to Burma’s colonial period or earlier, including that of the country itself: Burma became Myanmar. The renaming remains a contested issue.^[38] Many political and ethnic opposition groups and countries continue to use Burma because they do not recognise the legitimacy or authority of the military government.^[39]
【参考译文】1989年，军政府正式更改了许多名称的英文翻译，这些名称可追溯到缅甸的殖民时期或更早时期，包括缅甸国名本身：缅甸更名为缅甸联邦共和国。改名问题仍存在争议。[38]许多政治和民族反对团体以及国家仍在使用缅甸这一名称，因为他们不承认军政府的合法性或权威。[39]

The country’s official full name is “Republic of the Union of Myanmar” (Burmese: ပြည်ထောင်စုသမ္မတ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော်, Pyihtaungsu Thamada Myanma Naingngantaw, pronounced [pjìdàʊɴzṵ θàɴməda̰ mjəmà nàɪɴŋàɴdɔ̀]). Countries that do not officially recognise that name use the long form “Union of Burma” instead.^[19][40] In English, the country is popularly known as either Burma or Myanmar. In Burmese, the pronunciation depends on the register used and is either Bama (pronounced [bəmà]) or Myamah (pronounced [mjəmà]).^[38]
【参考译文】该国的官方全称是“缅甸（Myanmar）联邦共和国”（缅甸语：Pyihtaungsu Thamada Myanma Naingngantaw，发音为[pjìdàʊɴzṵ θàɴməda̰ mjəmà nàɪɴŋàɴdɔ̀]）。不正式承认该名称的国家使用长形式“缅甸（Burma）联邦”。[19][40]在英语中，这个国家通常被称为缅甸或缅甸。在缅甸语中，发音取决于所使用的语域，是 Bama（发音为 [bəmà]）或 Myamah（发音为 [mjəmà]）。[38]

Official United States foreign policy retains Burma as the country’s name although the State Department‘s website lists the country as Burma (Myanmar).^[41] The United Nations uses Myanmar, as does the ASEAN and as do Australia,^[42] Russia, Germany,^[43] China, India, Bangladesh, Norway,^[44] Japan,^[45] Switzerland,^[46] and Canada.^[47] Most English-speaking international news media refer to the country by the name Myanmar, including the BBC,^[48] CNN,^[49] Al Jazeera,^[50] Reuters,^[51] and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC)/Radio Australia.^[52] Myanmar is known by a name deriving from Burma in Spanish, Italian, Romanian, and Greek.^[53] French-language media consistently use Birmanie.^[54][55]
【参考译文】虽然美国国务院的网站将该国列为“Burma（Myanmar）”，但美国官方外交政策仍保留“Burma”作为该国的名称。[41]联合国、东盟和澳大利亚[42]、俄罗斯、德国[43]、中国、印度、孟加拉国、挪威[44]、日本[45]、瑞士[46]和加拿大[47]都使用缅甸（Myanmar）联邦共和国这一名称。大多数以英语为语言的国际新闻媒体都使用缅甸（Myanmar）联邦共和国这一名称来指代该国，包括英国广播公司（BBC）[48]、美国有线电视新闻网（CNN）[49]、半岛电视台（Al Jazeera）[50]、路透社（Reuters）[51]和澳大利亚广播公司（ABC）/澳大利亚广播电台（Radio Australia）[52]。在西班牙语、意大利语、罗马尼亚语和希腊语中，缅甸（Myanmar）被称为与缅甸（Burma）相关的名称。[53]法语媒体始终使用Birmanie。[54][55]

There are at least nine different pronunciations of the English name Myanmar, and no single one is standard. Pronunciations with two syllables are found most often in major British and American dictionaries.^{[pronunciations 1]} Dictionaries—such as Collins—and other sources also report pronunciations with three syllables.^{[pronunciations 2][56]}
【参考译文】英语名称“缅甸联邦共和国”至少有九种不同的发音，且没有一种是标准的。在两个音节发音中，最常见于主要的英英和美英词典。[发音1]柯林斯等词典和其他资料也报道了三音节的发音。[发音2][56]

As John Wells explains, the English spellings of both Myanmar and Burma assume a non-rhotic variety of English, in which the letter r before a consonant or finally serves merely to indicate a long vowel: [ˈmjænmɑː, ˈbɜːmə]. So the pronunciation of the last syllable of Myanmar as [mɑːr] or of Burma as [ˈbɜːrmə] by some speakers in the UK and most speakers in North America is in fact a spelling pronunciation based on a misunderstanding of non-rhotic spelling conventions.
【参考译文】正如约翰·威尔斯（John Wells）所解释的那样，缅甸联邦共和国（Myanmar）和缅甸（Burma）的英语拼写都采用了非卷舌音的英语发音方式，在这种发音方式中，辅音前的r或词尾的r仅用于表示长元音：[ˈmjænmɑː, ˈbɜːmə]。因此，英国一些人和北美大多数人在发缅甸联邦共和国（Myanmar）的最后一个音节为[mɑːr]或缅甸（Burma）为[ˈbɜːrmə]时，实际上是基于对非卷舌音拼写规则的误解而进行的拼写发音。

2. 历史 | History

主条目：缅甸历史 / Main article: History of Myanmar

缅甸历史以四个族群为主：孟族（မန် mawn）、骠族（ပျူ）、缅族（ဗမာ Băma）及傣族（တႆး Tay，又称掸族）。哈维 (G. E. Harvey) 著作《缅甸历史》中认为缅族自称其祖先系来自北印度佛陀的部落，他们保留许多印度的文化习俗，约在西元后从印度阿萨姆（Assam）进入缅甸境内。

将缅甸划分成“上缅甸”和“下缅甸”是在英国殖民统治后的人为划分。相传公元前200年，骠人进入依洛瓦底江的上游地区，并掌控中国和印度之间的通商之路。两世纪之后孟族来到锡唐河流域，而在849年缅甸人接管骠河流域并建立蒲甘城。在825年－1757年，孟族国王统治南缅甸。1044年－1287年，缅族国王由蒲甘城开始统治。1278年，元朝政府设置缅中行省，管理缅甸东北部地区。后撤，并入云南等处行中书省。1287年－1531年，掸族国王由阿瓦由缅甸中部开始统治。1531年－1752年，东吁王朝统治缅甸。1752年－1885年，贡榜王朝统治缅甸。

2.1 史前 | Prehistory

Main articles: Prehistory of Myanmar and Migration period of ancient Burma
【主条目：缅甸史前史和古代缅甸的移民时期】

Archaeological evidence shows that Homo erectus lived in the region now known as Myanmar as early as 750,000 years ago, with no more erectus finds after 75,000 years ago.^[57] The first evidence of Homo sapiens is dated to about 25,000 BP with discoveries of stone tools in central Myanmar.^[58] Evidence of Neolithic age domestication of plants and animals and the use of polished stone tools dating to sometime between 10,000 and 6,000 BCE has been discovered in the form of cave paintings in Padah-Lin Caves.^[59]
【参考译文】考古证据表明，早在75万年前，直立人（Homo erectus）就生活在现在被称为缅甸的地区，但7.5万年前之后就再也没有发现过直立人。[57]关于智人（Homo sapiens）的最早证据可以追溯到大约2.5万年前，当时缅甸中部发现了石器。[58]在帕达林洞穴（Padah-Lin Caves）的洞穴壁画中发现了新石器时代驯化动植物和使用磨制石器的证据，这些证据可以追溯到公元前1万年至公元前6000年之间的某个时期。[59]

The Bronze Age arrived c. 1500 BCE when people in the region were turning copper into bronze, growing rice and domesticating poultry and pigs; they were among the first people in the world to do so.^[60] Human remains and artefacts from this era were discovered in Monywa District in the Sagaing Region.^[61] The Iron Age began around 500 BCE with the emergence of iron-working settlements in an area south of present-day Mandalay.^[62] Evidence also shows the presence of rice-growing settlements of large villages and small towns that traded with their surroundings as far as China between 500 BCE and 200 CE.^[63] Iron Age Burmese cultures also had influences from outside sources such as India and Thailand, as seen in their funerary practices concerning child burials. This indicates some form of communication between groups in Myanmar and other places, possibly through trade.^[64]
【参考译文】公元前1500年左右，青铜时代到来，该地区的人们开始将铜变成青铜，种植水稻并驯化家禽和猪；他们是世界上最早这样做的人之一。[60]在这个时代的人类遗骸和文物是在若开邦的莫纽瓦区发现的。[61]公元前500年左右，铁器时代开始，当时在今天曼德勒以南的地区出现了炼铁定居点。[62]证据表明，公元前500年至公元200年之间，缅甸出现了种植水稻的大村庄和小城镇定居点，它们与周围地区，甚至远至中国进行贸易。[63]铁器时代的缅甸文化也受到了印度和泰国等外部来源的影响，这在他们的儿童葬礼葬仪中有所体现。这表明缅甸群体与其他地方之间可能通过贸易等方式进行了某种形式的交流。[64]

2.2 早期城邦国家 | Early city-states

Main articles: Pyu city-states and Mon kingdoms【主条目：骠城邦和孟王国】

Around the second century BCE the first-known city-states emerged in central Myanmar. The city-states were founded as part of the southward migration by the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu people, the earliest inhabitants of Myanmar of whom records are extant, from present-day Yunnan.^[65] The Pyu culture was heavily influenced by trade with India, importing Buddhism as well as other cultural, architectural and political concepts, which would have an enduring influence on later Burmese culture and political organisation.^[66]
【参考译文】公元前2世纪左右，缅甸中部出现了已知的最早的城邦国家。这些城邦国家是由讲藏缅语的骠族人向南迁徙时建立的，骠族人是缅甸最早的居民，现存有他们的记录，来自今天的云南省。[65]骠文化深受与印度贸易的影响，引进了佛教以及其他文化、建筑和政治理念，这些理念对后来的缅甸文化和政治组织产生了持久的影响。[66]

By the 9th century, several city-states had sprouted across the land: the Pyu in the central dry zone, Mon along the southern coastline and Arakanese along the western littoral. The balance was upset when the Pyu came under repeated attacks from Nanzhao between the 750s and the 830s. In the mid-to-late 9th century the Bamar people founded a small settlement at Bagan. It was one of several competing city-states until the late 10th century, when it grew in authority and grandeur.^[67]
【参考译文】到了9世纪，缅甸各地涌现出几个城邦国家：中部干旱地区的骠族城邦、南部沿海地区的孟族城邦和西部沿海地区的若开族城邦。公元750年至830年间，骠族城邦多次遭到南诏的袭击，导致平衡被打破。在9世纪中后期，巴玛族人在蒲甘建立了一个小定居点。直到10世纪末期，它一直是几个相互竞争的城邦国家之一，之后才逐渐壮大并变得宏伟。[67]

2.3 蒲甘王国 | Pagan Kingdom

Main articles: Pagan Kingdom, Toungoo dynasty, and Konbaung dynasty
【主条目：蒲甘王国、东吁王朝和贡榜王朝】

See also: Kingdom of Ava, Hanthawaddy Kingdom, Kingdom of Mrauk U, and Shan States
【另见：阿瓦王国、汉达瓦底王国、阿拉干王国和掸邦诸国】

Pagan gradually grew to absorb its surrounding states until the 1050s–1060s when Anawrahta founded the Pagan Kingdom, the first ever unification of the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Pagan Empire and the Khmer Empire were two main powers in mainland Southeast Asia.^[68] The Burmese language and culture gradually became dominant in the upper Irrawaddy valley, eclipsing the Pyu, Mon and Pali norms^{[clarification needed]} by the late 12th century.^[69] Theravada Buddhism slowly began to spread to the village level, although Tantric, Mahayana, Hinduism, and folk religion remained heavily entrenched. Pagan’s rulers and wealthy built over 10,000 Buddhist temples in the Pagan capital zone alone. Repeated Mongol invasions in the late 13th century toppled the four-century-old kingdom in 1287.^[69]
【参考译文】蒲甘逐渐扩张并吞并了其周边国家，直到11世纪50年代至60年代阿奴律陀建立蒲甘王国，这标志着伊洛瓦底江流域及其周边地区的首次统一。在12世纪和13世纪，蒲甘帝国和高棉帝国是东南亚大陆的两个主要强国。[68]到12世纪末期，缅甸的语言和文化逐渐在伊洛瓦底江上游流域占据主导地位，取代了骠族、孟族和巴利语规范（需澄清）。[69]虽然密宗、大乘佛教、印度教和民间宗教仍然根深蒂固，但上座部佛教开始缓慢地向乡村传播。蒲甘的统治者和富人仅在蒲甘首都地区就建造了1万多座佛教寺庙。13世纪末期，蒙古人的多次入侵导致这个有着四百年历史的王国在1287年覆灭。[69]

Pagan’s collapse was followed by 250 years of political fragmentation that lasted well into the 16th century. Like the Burmans four centuries earlier, Shan migrants who arrived with the Mongol invasions stayed behind. Several competing Shan States came to dominate the entire northwestern to eastern arc surrounding the Irrawaddy valley. The valley too was beset with petty states until the late 14th century when two sizeable powers, Ava Kingdom and Hanthawaddy Kingdom, emerged. In the west, a politically fragmented Arakan was under competing influences of its stronger neighbours until the Kingdom of Mrauk U unified the Arakan coastline for the first time in 1437. The kingdom was a protectorate of the Bengal Sultanate at different time periods.^[70]
【参考译文】蒲甘的崩溃之后是长达250年的政治分裂，这种分裂一直持续到16世纪。就像四个世纪前的缅甸人一样，随着蒙古人的入侵而来的掸族移民也留了下来。几个相互竞争的掸邦国家开始统治整个伊洛瓦底江流域西北至东部的弧形地带。直到14世纪末期，伊洛瓦底江流域也出现了许多小国，这时出现了两个强大的势力，即阿瓦王国和汉达瓦底王国。在西部，政治分裂的阿拉干在其强大的邻国的影响下相互竞争，直到1437年阿拉干王国首次统一了阿拉干海岸线。该王国在不同时期是孟加拉苏丹国的保护国。[70]

In the 14th and 15th centuries, Ava fought wars of unification but could never quite reassemble the lost empire. Having held off Ava, the Mon-speaking Hanthawaddy entered its golden age, and Arakan went on to become a power in its own right for the next 350 years. In contrast, constant warfare left Ava greatly weakened, and it slowly disintegrated from 1481 onward. In 1527, the Confederation of Shan States conquered Ava and ruled Upper Myanmar until 1555.
【参考译文】在14世纪和15世纪，阿瓦王国进行了统一战争，但始终未能重新组建失去的帝国。在抵挡住阿瓦王国的进攻后，讲孟语的汉达瓦底王国进入了它的黄金时代，而阿拉干在接下来的350年里也成为了一个强国。相比之下，持续的战争使阿瓦王国大大削弱，并从1481年开始逐渐瓦解。1527年，掸邦联邦征服了阿瓦王国，并统治了上缅甸，直到1555年。

Like the Pagan Empire, Ava, Hanthawaddy and the Shan states were all multi-ethnic polities. Despite the wars, cultural synchronisation continued. This period is considered a golden age for Burmese culture. Burmese literature “grew more confident, popular, and stylistically diverse”, and the second generation of Burmese law codes as well as the earliest pan-Burma chronicles emerged.^[71] Hanthawaddy monarchs introduced religious reforms that later spread to the rest of the country.^[72]
【参考译文】与蒲甘帝国一样，阿瓦、汉达瓦底和掸邦国家都是多民族政权。尽管战争不断，但文化融合仍在继续。这一时期被认为是缅甸文化的黄金时代。缅甸文学“变得更加自信、流行和风格多样”，第二代缅甸法典以及最早的泛缅甸编年史也相继出现。[71]汉达瓦底君主实行了宗教改革，这些改革后来传播到了缅甸的其他地区。[72]

2.4 东吁和贡榜 | Taungoo and Konbaung

Political unification returned in the mid-16th century, through the efforts of Taungoo, a former vassal state of Ava. Taungoo’s young, ambitious King Tabinshwehti defeated the more powerful Hanthawaddy in the Toungoo–Hanthawaddy War. His successor Bayinnaung went on to conquer a vast swath of mainland Southeast Asia including the Shan states, Lan Na, Manipur, Mong Mao, the Ayutthaya Kingdom, Lan Xang and southern Arakan. However, the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia unravelled soon after Bayinnaung’s death in 1581, completely collapsing by 1599. Ayutthaya seized Tenasserim and Lan Na, and Portuguese mercenaries established Portuguese rule at Thanlyin (Syriam).
【参考译文】16世纪中叶，通过阿瓦王国的前附庸国东吁的不懈努力，缅甸实现了政治统一。东吁年轻而雄心勃勃的国王莽应龙在东吁-汉达瓦底战争中击败了更为强大的汉达瓦底王国。他的继任者莽应龙继续征服了东南亚大陆的大片地区，包括掸邦国家、澜沧、曼尼普尔、孟艮、阿瑜陀耶王国、万象和阿拉干南部。然而，东南亚历史上最大的帝国在莽应龙于1581年去世后不久就瓦解了，到1599年已完全崩溃。阿瑜陀耶王国占领了德林达依和澜沧，葡萄牙雇佣军则在丹林（Syriam）建立了葡萄牙统治。

The dynasty regrouped and defeated the Portuguese in 1613 and Siam in 1614. It restored a smaller, more manageable kingdom, encompassing Lower Myanmar, Upper Myanmar, Shan states, Lan Na and upper Tenasserim. The restored Toungoo kings created a legal and political framework whose basic features continued well into the 19th century. The crown completely replaced the hereditary chieftainships with appointed governorships in the entire Irrawaddy valley and greatly reduced the hereditary rights of Shan chiefs. Its trade and secular administrative reforms built a prosperous economy for more than 80 years. From the 1720s onward, the kingdom was beset with repeated Meithei raids into Upper Myanmar and a nagging rebellion in Lan Na. In 1740, the Mon of Lower Myanmar founded the Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom. Hanthawaddy forces sacked Ava in 1752, ending the 266-year-old Toungoo Dynasty.
【参考译文】东吁王朝重新集结力量，于1613年击败了葡萄牙人，并于1614年击败了暹罗。它恢复了一个更小、更易于管理的王国，包括下缅甸、上缅甸、掸邦国家、澜沧和德林达依北部。复辟的东吁国王制定了一个法律和政治框架，其基本特征一直延续到19世纪。王权完全取代了伊洛瓦底江流域整个地区的世袭酋长制，改由任命的总督统治，并大大削弱了掸族酋长的世袭权利。其贸易和世俗行政改革为缅甸带来了80多年的繁荣经济。从18世纪20年代开始，缅甸王国不断遭到梅泰人对上缅甸的袭击以及澜沧的叛乱困扰。1740年，下缅甸的孟族建立了复辟的汉达瓦底王国。1752年，汉达瓦底军队洗劫了阿瓦，结束了长达266年的东吁王朝。

After the fall of Ava, the Konbaung–Hanthawaddy War involved one resistance group under Alaungpaya defeating the Restored Hanthawaddy, and by 1759 he had reunited all of Myanmar and Manipur and driven out the French and the British, who had provided arms to Hanthawaddy. By 1770, Alaungpaya’s heirs had subdued much of Laos and fought and won the Burmese–Siamese War against Ayutthaya and the Sino-Burmese War against Qing China.^[73]
【参考译文】阿瓦陷落后，贡榜-汉达瓦底战争爆发，阿拉昂帕耶领导下的一个抵抗组织击败了复辟的汉达瓦底王国，到1759年，他已重新统一了整个缅甸和曼尼普尔，并驱逐了为汉达瓦底提供武器的法国人和英国人。到1770年，阿拉昂帕耶的继承人已征服了老挝的大部分地区，并在对抗阿瑜陀耶的缅泰战争和对抗清朝的中缅战争中取得胜利。[73]

With Burma preoccupied by the Chinese threat, Ayutthaya recovered its territories by 1770 and went on to capture Lan Na by 1776. Burma and Siam went to war until 1855, but all resulted in a stalemate, exchanging Tenasserim (to Burma) and Lan Na (to Ayutthaya). Faced with a powerful China and a resurgent Ayutthaya in the east, King Bodawpaya turned west, acquiring Arakan (1785), Manipur (1814) and Assam (1817). It was the second-largest empire in Burmese history but also one with a long ill-defined border with British India.^[74]
【参考译文】缅甸因中国威胁而分心，阿瑜陀耶在1770年收复了其领土，并在1776年占领了澜沧。缅甸和暹罗一直战争不断，直到1855年，但都以僵局告终，双方交换了德林达依（给缅甸）和澜沧（给阿瑜陀耶）。面对东方的强大中国和复兴的阿瑜陀耶，波道帕耶国王转向西方，占领了阿拉干（1785年）、曼尼普尔（1814年）和阿萨姆（1817年）。这是缅甸历史上第二大的帝国，但与英属印度之间却有一个长期未明确界定的边界。[74]

In 1826, Burma lost Arakan, Manipur, Assam and Tenasserim to the British in the First Anglo-Burmese War. In 1852, the British easily seized Lower Burma in the Second Anglo-Burmese War. King Mindon Min tried to modernise the kingdom and in 1875 narrowly avoided annexation by ceding the Karenni States. The British, alarmed by the consolidation of French Indochina, annexed the remainder of the country in the Third Anglo-Burmese War in 1885.
【参考译文】1826年，缅甸在第一次英缅战争中失去了阿拉干、曼尼普尔、阿萨姆和德林达依。1852年，英国在第二次英缅战争中轻而易举地占领了缅甸下缅甸地区。敏东王试图使王国现代化，并在1875年通过割让克伦邦而勉强避免了被吞并的命运。英国人对法国印度支那的巩固感到震惊，于1885年在第三次英缅战争中吞并了该国的其余部分。

Konbaung kings extended Restored Toungoo’s administrative reforms and achieved unprecedented levels of internal control and external expansion. For the first time in history, the Burmese language and culture came to predominate the entire Irrawaddy valley. The evolution and growth of Burmese literature and theatre continued, aided by an extremely high adult male literacy rate for the era (half of all males and 5% of females).^[75] Nonetheless, the extent and pace of reforms were uneven and ultimately proved insufficient to stem the advance of British colonialism.
【参考译文】贡榜国王们继承了复辟的东吁王国的行政改革，并实现了前所未有的内部控制和外部扩张。历史上第一次，缅甸语言和文化在整个伊洛瓦底江流域占据主导地位。缅甸文学和戏剧的演变和发展继续进行，当时极高的成年男性识字率（所有男性的一半和5%的女性）为此提供了助力。[75]然而，改革的广度和速度都不均衡，最终证明不足以遏制英国殖民主义的扩张。

2.5 英属缅甸（1885-1948年）| British Burma (1885–1948)

Main articles: British rule in Burma and Burma campaign
【主条目：“英国在缅甸的统治”和“缅甸战役”】

1824年－1826年，第一次英缅战争，以英国的决定性胜利告终。1852年，第二次英缅战争，英军进一步拿下缅甸其它区域。1885年（光绪十一年），第三次英缅战争，英军占领了整个缅甸，并将之纳入大英帝国下属的印度领地当中，成为英属印度的一个省份。云贵总督岑毓英据情上奏^[14]:252，清政府命驻英公使曾纪泽向英国政府抗议无效。1886年（光绪十二年六月），中国与英国在北京签订《中英缅甸条约》，“规定中国承认英国对缅甸有支配权，但缅甸对中国仍照往例，每十年一贡。至于中缅边境未定界，应由两国会商勘定。”^[14]:252

1890年－1947年，掸邦、佤邦成为大英帝国的保护国。克钦邦、钦邦则为分开的行政区。1894年，薛福成在伦敦与英国签订《中英滇缅商务条款》。1897年，修改订约划定疆界及规定商务课税等条文。缅甸完全成为英国殖民地英属印度的一省，由印度总督派员驻缅治理^[14]:252。1937年4月1日，《印度政府法》实行，缅甸脱离英属印度，成为大英帝国缅甸本部。

In the 19th century, Burmese rulers sought to maintain their traditional influence in the western areas of Assam, Manipur and Arakan. Pressing them, however, was the British East India Company, which was expanding its interests eastwards over the same territory. Over the next sixty years, diplomacy, raids, treaties and compromises, known collectively as the Anglo-Burmese Wars, continued until Britain proclaimed control over most of Burma.^[76] With the fall of Mandalay, all of Burma came under British rule, being annexed on 1 January 1886.
【参考译文】19世纪，缅甸统治者试图维持其在阿萨姆邦、曼尼普尔和阿拉干西部地区的传统影响力。然而，迫使他们做出改变的是英国东印度公司，该公司正在向同一地区东扩其利益。在接下来的六十年里，外交、突袭、条约和妥协（统称为英缅战争）一直持续，直到英国宣布控制缅甸大部分地区。[76]随着曼德勒的陷落，整个缅甸于1886年1月1日被英国吞并。

Throughout the colonial era, many Indians arrived as soldiers, civil servants, construction workers and traders and, along with the Anglo-Burmese community, dominated commercial and civil life in Burma. Rangoon became the capital of British Burma and an important port between Calcutta and Singapore. Burmese resentment was strong, and was vented in violent riots that periodically paralysed Rangoon until the 1930s.^[77] Some of the discontent was caused by a disrespect for Burmese culture and traditions. Buddhist monks became the vanguards of the independence movement. U Wisara, an activist monk, died in prison after a 166-day hunger strike.^[78]
【参考译文】在整个殖民时代，许多印度人作为士兵、公务员、建筑工人和商人来到缅甸，并与英缅社区一起主导了缅甸的商业和民事生活。仰光成为英属缅甸的首都，也是加尔各答和新加坡之间的重要港口。缅甸人的怨恨情绪十分强烈，并在暴力骚乱中宣泄出来，这些骚乱使仰光在20世纪30年代以前一直陷入瘫痪。[77]部分不满源于对缅甸文化和传统的不尊重。佛教僧侣成为独立运动的先锋。激进僧侣吴维萨拉在绝食166天后在狱中去世。[78]

On 1 April 1937, Burma became a separately administered colony of Britain, and Ba Maw became the first Prime Minister and Premier of Burma. Ba Maw was an outspoken advocate for Burmese self-rule, and he opposed the participation of Britain, and by extension Burma, in World War II. He resigned from the Legislative Assembly and was arrested for sedition. In 1940, before Japan formally entered the war, Aung San formed the Burma Independence Army in Japan.
【参考译文】1937年4月1日，缅甸成为英国单独管辖的殖民地，巴莫成为缅甸第一位总理兼首相。巴莫是缅甸自治的直言不讳的倡导者，他反对英国，以及由此延伸的缅甸参与第二次世界大战。他辞去了立法议会议员的职务，并因煽动叛乱而被捕。1940年，在日本正式参战前，昂山在日本组建了缅甸独立军。

As a major battleground, Burma was devastated during World War II by the Japanese invasion. Within months after they entered the war, Japanese troops had advanced on Rangoon, and the British administration had collapsed. A Burmese Executive Administration headed by Ba Maw was established by the Japanese in August 1942. Wingate‘s British Chindits were formed into long-range penetration groups trained to operate deep behind Japanese lines.^[79] A similar American unit, Merrill’s Marauders, followed the Chindits into the Burmese jungle in 1943.^[80]
【参考译文】作为主要的战场，缅甸在第二次世界大战期间遭到日本入侵的蹂躏。日本参战仅数月后，日军就向仰光推进，英国政府随之崩溃。1942年8月，日本成立了以巴莫为首的缅甸行政机构。温盖特的英国奇袭部队被编成长途渗透小组，训练他们深入日军后方作战。[79]1943年，一支类似的美国部队梅里尔的掠夺者紧随奇袭部队进入缅甸丛林。[80]

1941年12月23日，中英在重庆签署《中英共同防御滇缅路协定》，中英军事同盟形成，中国为支援英军在滇缅（时为英属地）抗击大日本帝国、并为了保卫中国西南大后方，组建了中国远征军。这是中国与盟国直接进行军事合作的典范。从中国军队入缅算起，中缅印大战历时3年零3月，中国投入兵力总计40万人，伤亡接近20万人。1942年昂山和奈温所领导的缅甸独立军引领日本占领缅甸。1943年8月1日，日本宣布给缅甸成立缅甸国，并帮助缅甸发展国家经济^[14]:254。1944年2月，昂山秘密组织“反法西斯人民自由联盟”。1945年3月27日，“反法西斯人民自由联盟”揭起武装抗日旗帜^[14]:255。8月15日日本投降后，大英帝国重返缅甸。10月16日，原缅甸总督斯密士爵士（Sir Reginald Dorman-Smith）重返缅甸，实施军事管治。11月，临时政府正式产生，以昂山为副总理。后来“反法西斯人民自由联盟”分裂，临时政府亦因此而夭折^[14]:255-256。

Beginning in late 1944, allied troops launched a series of offensives that led to the end of Japanese rule in July 1945. The battles were intense with much of Burma laid waste by the fighting. Overall, the Japanese lost some 150,000 men in Burma with 1,700 prisoners taken.^[81] Although many Burmese fought initially for the Japanese as part of the Burma Independence Army, many Burmese, mostly from the ethnic minorities, served in the British Burma Army.^[82] The Burma National Army and the Arakan National Army fought with the Japanese from 1942 to 1944 but switched allegiance to the Allied side in 1945. Overall, 170,000 to 250,000 Burmese civilians died during World War II.^[83]
【参考译文】从1944年末开始，盟军发动了一系列攻势，导致日本在1945年7月结束了统治。战斗十分激烈，缅甸大部分地区在战火中被摧毁。总的来说，日军在缅甸损失了约15万人，其中1700人被俘。[81]尽管许多缅甸人最初作为缅甸独立军的一部分为日本而战，但许多缅甸人，主要是少数民族，在英属缅甸军队服役。[82]缅甸国民军和阿拉干国民军从1942年至1944年与日军作战，但在1945年转而支持盟军。总的来说，有17万至25万缅甸平民在第二次世界大战中丧生。[83]

1946年8月，蓝斯将军（General Sir Robert Rance）出任总督。第二次临时政府成立，昂山为缅甸总理。1947年，众掸邦、克钦邦、钦邦及缅甸本部于掸邦境内彬龙（也译为班弄）小镇上，签署《彬龙协议》，协议之目的为，联合上缅甸、掸邦、克钦邦、钦邦等，联合向英国争取独立。7月19日，昂山将军及六位阁员被暗杀^[14]:257-258。1948年1月4日：缅甸脱离英国六十多年的殖民统治，正式宣布成立缅甸联邦共和国，苏瑞泰为首任缅甸总统。

Following World War II, Aung San negotiated the Panglong Agreement with ethnic leaders that guaranteed the independence of Myanmar as a unified state. Aung Zan Wai, Pe Khin, Bo Hmu Aung, Sir Maung Gyi, Sein Mya Maung, Myoma U Than Kywe were among the negotiators of the historic Panglong Conference negotiated with Bamar leader General Aung San and other ethnic leaders in 1947. In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Myanmar, a transitional government. But in July 1947, political rivals^[84] assassinated Aung San and several cabinet members.^[85]
【参考译文】第二次世界大战结束后，昂山与各民族领导人谈判了《彬龙协议》，确保了缅甸作为统一国家的独立。昂赞卫、培钦、博穆昂、茂昂基爵士、森妙茂、缅甸吴登基等人是1947年与巴马领导人昂山将军及其他民族领导人谈判的历史性彬龙会议的谈判代表。1947年，昂山成为缅甸行政委员会副主席，这是一个过渡政府。但1947年7月，政治对手[84]刺杀了昂山及其内阁数名成员。[85]

2.6 独立（1948-1962年）| Independence (1948–1962)

Main article: Post-independence Burma (1948–1962)【主条目：独立后的缅甸 (1948–1962)】

On 4 January 1948, the nation became an independent republic, under the terms of the Burma Independence Act 1947. The new country was named the Union of Burma, with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first president and U Nu as its first prime minister. Unlike most other former British colonies and overseas territories, Burma did not become a member of the Commonwealth. A bicameral parliament was formed, consisting of a Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber of Nationalities,^[86] and multi-party elections were held in 1951–1952, 1956 and 1960.
【参考译文】1948年1月4日，根据1947年《缅甸独立法》，缅甸成为一个独立的共和国。这个新国家被命名为缅甸联邦，首任总统为邵素泰克，首任总理为吴努。与大多数其他前英国殖民地和海外领土不同，缅甸没有成为英联邦的成员国。缅甸成立了一个两院制议会，由众议院和民族院组成，[86]并于1951-1952年、1956年和1960年举行了多党选举。

1948年－1958年，以吴努为首的反法西斯人民自由同盟成为缅甸联邦的执政党。1958年－1960年，奈温将军强迫吴努让其成立“看守政府”。1960年－1962年，吴努的缅甸联邦党（由反法西斯人民自由同盟廉洁派改名）在1960年缅甸大选获胜而执政。

The geographical area Burma encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement, which combined Burma Proper, which consisted of Lower Burma and Upper Burma, and the Frontier Areas, which had been administered separately by the British.^[87]
【参考译文】缅甸今天所涵盖的地理区域可以追溯到《彬龙协议》，该协议将下缅甸和上缅甸组成的缅甸本土和英国分别管理的边境地区合并。[87]

In 1961, U Thant, the Union of Burma’s Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former secretary to the prime minister, was elected Secretary-General of the United Nations, a position he held for ten years.^[88]
【参考译文】1961年，缅甸联邦常驻联合国代表、前总理秘书吴丹当选为联合国秘书长，并连任十年。[88]

When the non-Burman ethnic groups pushed for autonomy or federalism, alongside having a weak civilian government at the centre, the military leadership staged a coup d’état in 1962. Though incorporated in the 1947 Constitution, successive military governments construed the use of the term ‘federalism‘ as being anti-national, anti-unity and pro-disintegration.^[89]
【参考译文】当非缅甸族裔团体在中央政府薄弱的平民政府统治下推动自治或联邦制时，军事领导层于1962年发动了一场政变。尽管“联邦制”一词被纳入1947年《宪法》，但历任军政府都将其解释为反国家、反统一和促分裂。[89]

2.7 军事统治（1962-2011年）| Military rule (1962–2011)

1962年－1974年，奈温夺取政权并废除联邦宪法，成立“缅甸联邦革命委员会”，排除民选制度，开始军人独裁统治。1964年5月废止50元及100元大钞^[15]。1967年6月缅甸排华杀掠事件^[16]。1974年－1988年，奈温颁布新宪法，承认若开邦、钦邦、克钦邦、克伦邦、卡耶/克伦尼邦、孟邦、掸邦为行政单位。同时奈温褪去军人形象，自任“缅甸社会主义纲领党”主席，“缅甸联邦革命委员会”改称“缅甸联邦社会主义共和国国务委员会”，“缅甸联邦”改国名为“缅甸联邦社会主义共和国”，确立一党专政，实行缅甸式社会主义。

On 2 March 1962, the military led by General Ne Win took control of Burma through a coup d’état, and the government had been under direct or indirect control by the military since then. Between 1962 and 1974, Myanmar was ruled by a revolutionary council headed by the general. Almost all aspects of society (business, media, production) were nationalised or brought under government control under the Burmese Way to Socialism,^[90] which combined Soviet-style nationalisation and central planning.
【参考译文】1962年3月2日，以奈温将军为首的军队通过政变控制了缅甸，此后政府一直处于军队直接或间接的控制之下。1962年至1974年间，缅甸由以将军为首的革命委员会统治。在缅甸式社会主义下，社会几乎所有方面（商业、媒体、生产）都被国有化或置于政府控制之下，[90]这种社会主义结合了苏联式的国有化和中央计划。

A new constitution of the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma was adopted in 1974. Until 1988, the country was ruled as a one-party system, with the general and other military officers resigning and ruling through the Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP).^[91] During this period, Myanmar became one of the world’s most impoverished countries.^[92] There were sporadic protests against military rule during the Ne Win years, and these were almost always violently suppressed. On 7 July 1962, the government broke up demonstrations at Rangoon University, killing 15 students.^[90] In 1974, the military violently suppressed anti-government protests at the funeral of U Thant. Student protests in 1975, 1976, and 1977 were quickly suppressed by overwhelming force.^[91]
【参考译文】1974 年，缅甸联邦社会主义共和国通过新宪法。直到 1988 年，缅甸一直实行一党制，将军和其他军官辞职，通过缅甸社会主义纲领党 (BSPP) 执政。[91] 在此期间，缅甸成为世界上最贫穷的国家之一。[92] 奈温执政期间，缅甸偶尔爆发反对军事统治的抗议活动，但几乎都遭到暴力镇压。1962 年 7 月 7 日，政府驱散了仰光大学的示威活动，造成 15 名学生死亡。[90] 1974 年，军方在吴丹的葬礼上暴力镇压了反政府抗议活动。1975 年、1976 年和 1977 年的学生抗议活动很快被压倒性的武力镇压。[91]

In 1988, unrest over economic mismanagement and political oppression by the government led to widespread pro-democracy demonstrations throughout the country known as the 8888 Uprising. Security forces killed thousands of demonstrators, and General Saw Maung staged a coup d’état and formed the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). In 1989, SLORC declared martial law after widespread protests. The military government finalised plans for People’s Assembly elections on 31 May 1989.^[93] SLORC changed the country’s official English name from the “Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma” to the “Union of Myanmar” on 18 June 1989 by enacting the adaptation of the expression law.
【参考译文】1988 年，缅甸政府因经济管理不善和政治压迫而引发骚乱，全国爆发大规模民主示威游行，史称 8888 起义。安全部队杀死了数千名示威者，苏貌将军发动政变，成立了国家法律和秩序恢复委员会 (SLORC)。1989 年，在大规模抗议活动之后，SLORC 宣布戒严。军政府最终确定了 1989 年 5 月 31 日人民议会选举计划。[93] 1989 年 6 月 18 日，SLORC 颁布了措辞法，将该国的官方英文名称从“缅甸（Burma）联邦社会主义共和国”更改为“缅甸（Myanmar）联邦”。

1988年7月，缅甸全国爆发大规模游行示威，美国撤销对时任缅甸军政府的支持。长期独裁统治的奈温被迫下台，而后，奈温的心腹盛伦于7月26日接替奈温成为缅甸社会主义纲领党主席，次日继任缅甸总统。1988年8月8日，爆发著名的8888民主运动。1988年8月12日，盛伦辞去党主席及总统的职务。 1988年8月19日，貌貌所领导的文官政府接任盛伦，并成为新一任的成为缅甸社会主义纲领党主席。但仅仅一个月之后，被苏貌将军在9月18日发动的政变推翻，之后成立“缅甸联邦恢复法律和秩序委员会”坚持一党专政，取代缅甸社会主义纲领党，成为缅甸军政府的最高权力机构。而失势的原执政党“缅甸社会主义纲领党”更名为“缅甸民族团结党”。1989年6月18日，缅甸军政府将“缅甸”的英文写法“Burma”改为“Myanmar”。1992年，丹瑞将军取代苏貌将军全面接掌军政大权，继续一党专政。1997年，丹瑞将军将军政府改组为“缅甸联邦和平与发展委员会”，继续一党专政。同年，苏貌将军病逝，奈温的影响力减退。2002年，奈温在软禁中去世。

In May 1990, the government held free multiparty elections for the first time in almost 30 years, and the National League for Democracy (NLD), the party of Aung San Suu Kyi, won^[94] earning 392 out of a total 492 seats (i.e., 80% of the seats). However, the military junta refused to cede power^[95] and continued to rule the nation, first as SLORC and, from 1997, as the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) until its dissolution in March 2011. General Than Shwe took over the Chairmanship – effectively the position of Myanmar’s top ruler – from General Saw Maung in 1992 and held it until 2011.^[96]
【参考译文】1990 年 5 月，政府举行了近 30 年来首次自由多党选举，昂山素季所属的全国民主联盟 (NLD) 赢得了选举[94]，获得了 492 个席位中的 392 个（即 80% 的席位）。然而，军政府拒绝放弃权力[95]，继续统治国家，先是作为 SLORC，从 1997 年开始，作为国家和平与发展委员会 (SPDC)，直到 2011 年 3 月解散。丹瑞将军于 1992 年从苏貌将军手中接过主席一职——实际上是缅甸最高统治者的职位——并一直担任该职位至 2011 年。[96]

On 23 June 1997, Myanmar was admitted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. On 27 March 2006, the military junta, which had moved the national capital from Yangon to a site near Pyinmana in November 2005, officially named the new capital Naypyidaw, meaning “city of the kings”.^[97]
【参考译文】1997 年 6 月 23 日，缅甸加入东南亚国家联盟。2006 年 3 月 27 日，缅甸军政府正式将新首都命名为内比都，意为“国王之城”。2005 年 11 月，军政府将首都从仰光迁至彬马那附近。[97]

2005年11月7日，缅甸军政府因战略思维宣布首都由仰光迁都至内比都。2007年8月中旬，仰光爆发2007年缅甸反军政府示威，是缅甸二十年来规模最大的抗议游行，参加人数大约数十万人。游行本为抗议油价高涨，后转为要求民主的反政府示威游行，至9月26日军人政府开始镇压，致数人死亡。2008年2月9日，军人政府宣布将在五月举办公民投票通过新宪法，并在2010年举行民主选举来成立新政府。2008年5月3日，特强气旋风暴纳尔吉斯袭击仰光等人口稠密城市，造成至少13万人死亡。 2010年10月21日，缅甸国家和平与发展委员会颁布法令，正式启用新宪法确定的新国旗和新国徽，但是国歌不变。^[17]并且把国名由“缅甸联邦”改为“缅甸联邦共和国”。

图片题注：Protesters in Yangon during the 2007 Saffron Revolution with a banner that reads non-violence: national movement in Burmese. In the background is Shwedagon Pagoda.

参考译文：2007 年“番红花革命”期间，仰光的抗议者举着横幅，上面写着“非暴力：缅甸民族运动”。背景是仰光大金塔。

图片作者：racoles

In August 2007, an increase in the price of fuel led to the Saffron Revolution led by Buddhist monks that were dealt with harshly by the government.^[98] The government cracked down on them on 26 September 2007, with reports of barricades at the Shwedagon Pagoda and monks killed. There were also rumours of disagreement within the Burmese armed forces, but none was confirmed. The military crackdown against unarmed protesters was widely condemned as part of the international reactions to the Saffron Revolution and led to an increase in economic sanctions against the Burmese Government.
【参考译文】2007 年 8 月，燃料价格上涨导致佛教僧侣发起“袈裟革命”，政府严厉镇压。[98] 2007 年 9 月 26 日，政府对他们进行了镇压，据报道，仰光大金塔设置了路障，僧侣被杀。也有传言称缅甸武装部队内部存在分歧，但未经证实。军方对手无寸铁的抗议者进行镇压，被广泛谴责为国际社会对“袈裟革命”的反应之一，并导致对缅甸政府的经济制裁增加。

In May 2008, Cyclone Nargis caused extensive damage in the densely populated rice-farming delta of the Irrawaddy Division.^[99] It was the worst natural disaster in Burmese history with reports of an estimated 200,000 people dead or missing, damages totalled to 10 billion US dollars, and as many as 1 million were left homeless.^[100] In the critical days following this disaster, Myanmar’s isolationist government was accused of hindering United Nations recovery efforts.^[101] Humanitarian aid was requested, but concerns about foreign military or intelligence presence in the country delayed the entry of United States military planes delivering medicine, food, and other supplies.^[102]
【参考译文】2008 年 5 月，纳尔吉斯气旋给伊洛瓦底江省人口稠密的水稻种植三角洲地区造成了巨大破坏。[99] 这是缅甸历史上最严重的自然灾害，据报道有 20 万人死亡或失踪，损失总额达 100 亿美元，多达 100 万人无家可归。[100] 在灾难发生后的关键日子里，缅甸的孤立主义政府被指责阻碍了联合国的救援工作。[101] 尽管缅甸请求人道主义援助，但由于担心外国军事或情报部门在缅甸的存在，美国军用飞机推迟了抵达缅甸，运送药品、食品和其他物资。[102]

In early August 2009, a conflict broke out in Shan State in northern Myanmar. For several weeks, junta troops fought against ethnic minorities including the Han Chinese,^[103] Wa, and Kachin.^[104][105] During 8–12 August, the first days of the conflict, as many as 10,000 Burmese civilians fled to Yunnan in neighbouring China.^{[104][105][106]}
【参考译文】2009 年 8 月初，缅甸北部掸邦爆发冲突。军政府军队与汉族、佤族和克钦族等少数民族交战数周。冲突爆发的头几天，即 8 月 8 日至 12 日，多达 10,000 名缅甸平民逃往邻国中国云南。[104][105][106]

2.8 内战 | Civil wars

Main article: Internal conflict in Myanmar【主条目：缅甸内部冲突】

Civil wars have been a constant feature of Myanmar’s socio-political landscape since the attainment of independence in 1948. These wars are predominantly struggles for ethnic and sub-national autonomy, with the areas surrounding the ethnically Bamar central districts of the country serving as the primary geographical setting of conflict. Foreign journalists and visitors require a special travel permit to visit the areas in which Myanmar’s civil wars continue.^[107]
【参考译文】自 1948 年独立以来，内战一直是缅甸社会政治格局中不变的现象。这些战争主要是为争取民族和次国家自治而展开的斗争，缅甸缅族聚居的中心地区周边地区是冲突的主要地理背景。外国记者和游客需要特殊旅行许可才能前往缅甸内战持续的地区。[107]

In October 2012, the ongoing conflicts in Myanmar included the Kachin conflict,^[108] between the Pro-Christian Kachin Independence Army and the government;^[109] a civil war between the Rohingya Muslims and the government and non-government groups in Rakhine State;^[110] and a conflict between the Shan,^[111] Lahu, and Karen^[112][113] minority groups, and the government in the eastern half of the country. In addition, al-Qaeda signalled an intention to become involved in Myanmar.^[114]
【参考译文】2012 年 10 月，缅甸持续不断的冲突包括克钦邦冲突[108]、亲基督教的克钦独立军与政府之间的冲突[109]、若开邦罗兴亚穆斯林与政府和非政府组织之间的内战[110]、以及缅甸东部掸族[111]、拉祜族和克伦族[112][113]少数民族与政府之间的冲突。此外，基地组织还发出了涉足缅甸的意向[114]。

Armed conflict between ethnic Chinese rebels and the Myanmar Armed Forces resulted in the Kokang offensive in February 2015. The conflict had forced 40,000 to 50,000 civilians to flee their homes and seek shelter on the Chinese side of the border.^[115] During the incident, the government of China was accused of giving military assistance to the ethnic Chinese rebels.^[116] Clashes between Burmese troops and local insurgent groups have continued, fuelling tensions between China and Myanmar.^[117]
【参考译文】2015 年 2 月，华裔叛军与缅甸武装部队之间的武装冲突导致了果敢攻势。这场冲突迫使 4 万至 5 万名平民逃离家园，到边界的中国一侧寻求庇护。[115] 在这起事件中，中国政府被指控向华裔叛军提供军事援助。[116] 缅甸军队与当地叛乱团体之间的冲突持续不断，加剧了中缅之间的紧张局势。[117]

2.9 自由化时期，2011-2021 | Period of liberalisation, 2011–2021

图片题注：U.S. President Barack Obama and Secretary of State Hillary Clinton with Aung San Suu Kyi and her staff at her home in Yangon, 2012

参考译文：2012 年，美国总统巴拉克·奥巴马和国务卿希拉里·克林顿与昂山素季及其工作人员在仰光的家中合影

图片作者：Pete Souza

See also: 2011–2015 Myanmar political reforms【另请参阅：2011-2015 年缅甸政治改革】

The military-backed Government had promulgated a “Roadmap to Discipline-flourishing Democracy” in 1993, but the process appeared to stall several times, until 2008 when the Government published a new draft national constitution, and organised a (flawed) national referendum which adopted it. The new constitution provided for election of a national assembly with powers to appoint a president, while practically ensuring army control at all levels.^[118]
【参考译文】军方支持的政府于 1993 年颁布了“民主繁荣的纪律路线图”，但这一进程似乎多次停滞不前，直到 2008 年政府公布了新的国家宪法草案，并组织了一次（有缺陷的）全国公投通过了该宪法。新宪法规定选举一个有权任命总统的国民议会，同时实际上确保军队对各级的控制。[118]

A general election in 2010 – the first for twenty years – was boycotted by the NLD. The military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party declared victory, stating that it had been favoured by 80 per cent of the votes; fraud, however, was alleged.^[119][120] A nominally civilian government was then formed, with retired general Thein Sein as president.^[121]
【参考译文】2010年举行了一次大选，这是二十年来的第一次大选，但民盟拒绝参加。军政府支持的联邦巩固与发展党宣布胜利，称获得了80%的选票；但有人称存在舞弊行为。[119][120]随后成立了一个名义上的民选政府，由退役将军登盛担任总统。[121]

2011年3月30日，登盛成为缅甸总统，丹瑞退位。2012年4月1日，缅甸联邦选举委员会发布公告，在45个议会议席补选中，全国民主联盟最终获得了43席（联邦议会人民院37席、民族院4席共计41席，地方议会2席），全国民主联盟主席昂山素季当选联邦议会人民院议员。2013年5月2日，缅甸执政党联邦巩固与发展党（巩发党）证实，总统登盛已经正式辞去该党主席职务，时任联邦议会人民院议长瑞曼接任巩发党主席。

A series of liberalising political and economic actions – or reforms – then took place. By the end of 2011 these included the release of pro-democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi from house arrest, the establishment of the National Human Rights Commission, the granting of general amnesties for more than 200 political prisoners, new labour laws that permitted labour unions and strikes, a relaxation of press censorship, and the regulation of currency practices.^[122] In response, United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton visited Myanmar in December 2011 – the first visit by a US Secretary of State in more than fifty years^[123] – meeting both President Thein Sein and opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi.^[124]
【参考译文】随后，缅甸采取了一系列政治和经济自由化行动（或改革）。截至 2011 年底，缅甸释放了民主派领袖昂山素季，成立了国家人权委员会，对 200 多名政治犯实行大赦，颁布了允许工会和罢工的新劳动法，放宽了新闻审查，并对货币行为进行了监管。[122] 作为回应，美国国务卿希拉里·克林顿于 2011 年 12 月访问了缅甸，这是美国国务卿 50 多年来首次访问缅甸[123]，她会见了总统登盛和反对派领袖昂山素季。[124]

Aung San Suu Kyi‘s NLD party participated in the 2012 by-elections, facilitated by the government’s abolition of the laws that previously barred it.^[125] In the April 2012 by-elections, the NLD won 43 of the 45 available seats. The 2012 by-elections were also the first time that international representatives were allowed to monitor the voting process in Myanmar.^[126]
【参考译文】昂山素季领导的全国民主联盟参加了 2012 年的补选，得益于政府废除了此前禁止该党参选的法律。[125] 在 2012 年 4 月的补选中，全国民主联盟赢得了 45 个席位中的 43 个。2012 年的补选也是国际代表首次获准监督缅甸的选举过程。[126]

Myanmar’s improved international reputation was indicated by ASEAN‘s approval of Myanmar’s bid for the position of ASEAN chair in 2014.^[127]
【参考译文】东盟批准缅甸竞选 2014 年东盟主席国席位，表明缅甸的国际声誉有所提升。[127]

2015年大选 | 2015 general elections

General elections were held on 8 November 2015. These were the first openly contested elections held in Myanmar since the 1990 general election (which was annulled^[128]). The results gave the NLD an absolute majority of seats in both chambers of the national parliament, enough to ensure that its candidate would become president, while NLD leader Aung San Suu Kyi is constitutionally barred from the presidency.^[128][129]
【参考译文】2015年11月8日举行了全国大选。这是自1990年大选（该次大选被宣布无效[128]）以来，缅甸首次公开竞争的选举。选举结果使民盟在全国议会两院中都获得了绝对多数的席位，足以确保其候选人成为总统，但民盟领导人昂山素季因宪法规定而无法担任总统一职。[128][129]

The new parliament convened on 1 February 2016,^[130] and on 15 March 2016, Htin Kyaw was elected as the first non-military president since the military coup of 1962.^[131] On 6 April 2016, Aung San Suu Kyi assumed the newly created role of state counsellor, a role akin to a prime minister.^[132]
【参考译文】新议会于2016年2月1日召开会议，[130]2016年3月15日，廷觉当选为自1962年军事政变以来首位非军人总统。[131]2016年4月6日，昂山素季担任新设立的国务资政一职，该职务类似于总理。[132]

2.10 政变和内战 | Coup d’état and civil war

Main articles: 2021 Myanmar coup d’état and Myanmar civil war (2021–present)
【主条目：2021 年缅甸政变和缅甸内战（2021 年至今）】

See also: Myanmar protests (2021–present)【另请参阅：缅甸抗议活动（2021 年至今）】

In Myanmar’s 2020 parliamentary election, the ostensibly ruling National League for Democracy (NLD), the party of State Counsellor Aung San Suu Kyi, competed with various other smaller parties – particularly the military-affiliated Union Solidarity and Development Party (USDP).^[133] Suu Kyi’s NLD won the 2020 Myanmar general election on 8 November in a landslide.^{[133][134][135]} The USDP, regarded as a proxy for the military, suffered a “humiliating” defeat^[136][137] – even worse than in 2015^[137] – capturing only 33 of the 476 elected seats.^[135][136]
【参考译文】在缅甸2020年的议会选举中，表面上执政的昂山素季领导的全国民主联盟（民盟）与其他较小政党——特别是与军方关系密切的联邦巩固与发展党（巩发党）——展开竞争。[133]昂山素季领导的民盟在11月8日举行的2020年缅甸大选中大获全胜。[133][134][135]被视为军方代理人的巩发党遭遇“耻辱性”失败[136][137]——情况甚至比2015年还要糟糕[137]——在476个选举席位中仅获得33席。[135][136]

As the election results began emerging, the USDP rejected them, urging a new election with the military as observers.^[133][137] More than 90 other smaller parties contested the vote, including more than 15 who complained of irregularities. However, election observers declared there were no major irregularities.^{[136][135][138]} However, despite the election commission validating the NLD’s overwhelming victory,^[138] the USDP and Myanmar’s military persistently alleged fraud.^{[139][140][136][141][142][143][144][excessive citations]} In January, 2021, just before the new parliament was to be sworn in, The NLD announced that Suu Kyi would retain her State Counsellor role in the upcoming government. ^[145]
【参考译文】选举结果公布后，联邦巩固与发展党拒绝接受结果，并敦促在军方观察员的监督下举行新选举。[133][137] 另有 90 多个小党派对选举结果提出异议，其中 15 多个党派抱怨选举存在违规行为。然而，选举观察员宣称选举结果没有出现重大违规行为。[136][135][138] 然而，尽管选举委员会确认了全国民主联盟的压倒性胜利，[138] 联邦巩固与发展党和缅甸军方仍坚持指控选举存在舞弊行为。[139][140][136][141][142][143][144][过度引用] 2021 年 1 月，就在新议会宣誓就职之前，全国民主联盟宣布昂山素季将在即将成立的政府中保留国务资政一职。[145]

In the early morning of 1 February 2021, the day parliament was set to convene, the Tatmadaw, Myanmar’s military, detained Suu Kyi and other members of the ruling party.^{[136] [146][147]} The military handed power to military chief Min Aung Hlaing and declared a state of emergency for one year^[148][146] and began closing the borders, restricting travel and electronic communications nationwide.^[147] The military announced it would replace the existing election commission with a new one, and a military media outlet indicated new elections would be held in about one year – though the military avoided making an official commitment to that.^[147] The military expelled NLD party Members of Parliament from the capital city, Naypyidaw.^[147] By 15 March 2021 the military leadership continued to extend martial law into more parts of Yangon, while security forces killed 38 people in a single day of violence.^[149]
【参考译文】2021 年 2 月 1 日凌晨，也就是议会召开之日，缅甸军方国防军拘留了昂山素季和执政党的其他成员。[136] [146][147] 军方将权力移交给军事首领敏昂莱，宣布进入为期一年的紧急状态[148][146]，并开始关闭边境，限制全国范围内的旅行和电子通讯。[147] 军方宣布将用新的选举委员会取代现有的选举委员会，一家军方媒体表示，新的选举将在大约一年后举行——尽管军方避免对此作出正式承诺。[147] 军方将全国民主联盟的议员驱逐出首都内比都。[147] 到 2021 年 3 月 15 日，军方领导层继续将戒严令扩大到仰光更多地区，而安全部队在一天的暴力事件中杀死了 38 人。[149]

By the second day of the coup, thousands of protesters were marching in the streets of Yangon, and other protests erupted nationwide, largely halting commerce and transportation. Despite the military’s arrests and killings of protesters, the first weeks of the coup found growing public participation, including groups of civil servants, teachers, students, workers, monks and religious leaders – even normally disaffected ethnic minorities.^{[150][151][147]}
【参考译文】政变第二天，数千名抗议者走上仰光街头，全国各地爆发抗议活动，商业和交通基本停滞。尽管军方逮捕并杀害抗​​议者，但政变头几周，公众参与度不断提高，包括公务员、教师、学生、工人、僧侣和宗教领袖，甚至包括通常心怀不满的少数民族。[150][151][147]

The coup was immediately condemned by the United Nations Secretary General, and leaders of democratic nations. The U.S. threatened sanctions on the military and its leaders, including a “freeze” of US$1 billion of their assets in the U.S.^[150][147] India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Russia, Vietnam, Thailand, the Philippines and China refrained from criticizing the military coup.^{[152][153][154][155]} A United Nations Security Council resolution called for the release of Aung San Suu Kyi and the other detained leaders^[150][147] – a position shared by the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights.^[147]
【参考译文】联合国秘书长和民主国家领导人立即谴责了此次政变。美国威胁对缅甸军方及其领导人实施制裁，包括“冻结”他们在美国的 10 亿美元资产。[150][147] 印度、巴基斯坦、孟加拉国、俄罗斯、越南、泰国、菲律宾和中国均未批评此次军事政变。[152][153][154][155] 联合国安理会决议呼吁释放昂山素季和其他被拘留的领导人[150][147]，联合国人权事务高级专员也持相同立场。[147]

International development and aid partners – business, non-governmental, and governmental – hinted at suspension of partnerships with Myanmar. Banks were closed and social media communications platforms, including Facebook and Twitter, removed Tatmadaw postings. Protesters appeared at Myanmar embassies in foreign countries.^[150][147] The National Unity Government then declared the formation of an armed wing on 5 May 2021, a date that is often cited as the start of a full-scale civil war. This armed wing was named the People’s Defence Force (PDF) to protect its supporters from military junta attacks and as a first step towards a Federal Union Army. The civil war is ongoing as of 2024.^{[156][157][25]}
【参考译文】国际发展和援助伙伴（包括企业、非政府组织和政府）暗示将暂停与缅甸的伙伴关系。银行关闭，社交媒体通信平台（包括 Facebook 和 Twitter）删除了缅甸军方的帖子。抗议者出现在缅甸驻外国大使馆前。[150][147] 民族团结政府随后于 2021 年 5 月 5 日宣布成立武装部队，这一天通常被认为是全面内战的开始。这个武装部队被命名为人民国防军 (PDF)，以保护其支持者免受军政府的袭击，并作为向联邦军队迈出的第一步。截至 2024 年，内战仍在继续。[156][157][25]

3. 地理 | Geography

Main article: Geography of Myanmar / 主条目：缅甸地理

Myanmar has a total area of 678,500 square kilometres (262,000 sq mi). It lies between latitudes 9° and 29°N, and longitudes 92° and 102°E. Myanmar is bordered in the northwest by the Chittagong Division of Bangladesh and the Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh states of India. Its north and northeast border is with the Tibet Autonomous Region and Yunnan for a Sino-Myanmar border total of 2,185 km (1,358 mi). It is bounded by Laos and Thailand to the southeast. Myanmar has 1,930 km (1,200 mi) of contiguous coastline along the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea to the southwest and the south, which forms one quarter of its total perimeter.^[19]
【参考译文】缅甸总面积678,500平方公里（262,000平方英里）。缅甸位于北纬9°至29°和东经92°至102°之间。缅甸的西北部与孟加拉国的吉大港区以及印度的米佐拉姆邦、曼尼普尔邦、那加兰邦和阿鲁纳恰尔邦接壤。其北部和东北部与中国的西藏自治区和云南省接壤，中缅边界总长为2,185公里（1,358英里）。缅甸的东南部与老挝和泰国接壤。缅甸拥有1,930公里（1,200英里）的连续海岸线，沿着孟加拉湾和安达曼海延伸到西南部和南部，这构成了缅甸总周长的四分之一。[19]

In the north, the Hengduan Mountains form the border with China. Hkakabo Razi, located in Kachin State, at an elevation of 5,881 metres (19,295 ft), is the highest point in Myanmar.^[158] Many mountain ranges, such as the Rakhine Yoma, the Bago Yoma, the Shan Hills and the Tenasserim Hills exist within Myanmar, all of which run north-to-south from the Himalayas.^[159] The mountain chains divide Myanmar’s three river systems, which are the Irrawaddy, Salween (Thanlwin), and the Sittaung rivers.^[160] The Irrawaddy River, Myanmar’s longest river at nearly 2,170 kilometres (1,348 mi), flows into the Gulf of Martaban. Fertile plains exist in the valleys between the mountain chains.^[159] The majority of Myanmar’s population lives in the Irrawaddy valley, which is situated between the Rakhine Yoma and the Shan Plateau.
【参考译文】在北部，横断山脉与中国接壤。位于克钦邦的哈卡博峰海拔5,881米（19,295英尺），是缅甸的最高点。[158]缅甸境内有许多山脉，如若开山脉、勃固山脉、掸邦高原和德林达依山脉，这些山脉均从喜马拉雅山脉由北向南延伸。[159]这些山脉将缅甸的三大水系——伊洛瓦底江、萨尔温江（丹伦江）和锡当江分隔开来。[160]伊洛瓦底江是缅甸最长的河流，全长约2,170公里（1,348英里），流入马塔班湾。在山脉之间的山谷中，存在着肥沃的平原。[159]缅甸的大部分人口生活在伊洛瓦底江谷地，该地区位于若开山脉和掸邦高原之间。

3.1 行政区划 | Administrative divisions

Main article: Administrative divisions of Myanmar【主条目：缅甸的行政区划】

Myanmar is divided into seven states (ပြည်နယ်) and seven regions (တိုင်းဒေသကြီး), formerly called divisions.^[161] Regions are predominantly Bamar (that is, mainly inhabited by Myanmar’s dominant ethnic group). States, in essence, are regions that are home to particular ethnic minorities. The administrative divisions are further subdivided into districts, which are further subdivided into townships, wards, and villages.
【参考译文】缅甸被划分为七个邦（省）和七个省（原称为分区）。[161]这些省主要由缅族（即缅甸的主要民族）居住。从本质上讲，邦是少数民族的聚居地。行政划分进一步细分为县，县再进一步细分为镇、区和村庄。

Below are the number of districts, townships, cities/towns, wards, village groups and villages in each division and state of Myanmar as of 31 December 2001:^[162]
【参考译文】以下是截至2001年12月31日缅甸每个邦和地区的县、镇、城市/镇、区、村庄组和村庄的数量：[162]

3.2 气候 | Climate

Main article: Climate of Myanmar【主条目：缅甸的气候】

Much of the country lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the Equator. It lies in the monsoon region of Asia, with its coastal regions receiving over 5,000 mm (196.9 in) of rain annually. Annual rainfall in the delta region is approximately 2,500 mm (98.4 in), while average annual rainfall in the dry zone in central Myanmar is less than 1,000 mm (39.4 in). The northern regions of Myanmar are the coolest, with average temperatures of 21 °C (70 °F). Coastal and delta regions have an average maximum temperature of 32 °C (89.6 °F).^[160] Previously and currently analysed data, as well as future projections on changes caused by climate change predict serious consequences to development for all economic, productive, social, and environmental sectors in Myanmar.^[163] In order to combat the hardships ahead and do its part to help combat climate change Myanmar has displayed interest in expanding its use of renewable energy and lowering its level of carbon emissions. Groups involved in helping Myanmar with the transition and move forward include the UN Environment Programme, Myanmar Climate Change Alliance, and the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation which directed in producing the final draft of the Myanmar national climate change policy that was presented to various sectors of the Myanmar government for review.^[164]
【参考译文】缅甸的大部分地区位于北回归线和赤道之间。它位于亚洲季风区，沿海地区每年降雨量超过5,000毫米（196.9英寸）。三角洲地区的年降雨量约为2,500毫米（98.4英寸），而缅甸中部干旱地区的年平均降雨量不足1,000毫米（39.4英寸）。缅甸北部地区最凉爽，平均气温为21°C（70°F）。沿海和三角洲地区的平均最高气温为32°C（89.6°F）。[160]过去和目前的分析数据，以及未来对气候变化造成的变化的预测，都预示着缅甸所有经济、生产、社会和环境部门的发展将面临严重后果。[163]为了应对未来的困境，并为应对气候变化做出贡献，缅甸已表示有兴趣扩大可再生能源的使用并降低碳排放水平。参与帮助缅甸进行转型和向前发展的团体包括联合国环境规划署、缅甸气候变化联盟以及自然资源和环境保护部，该部指导制定了缅甸国家气候变化政策的最终草案，并已提交缅甸政府各部门进行审查。[164]

In April 2015, it was announced that the World Bank and Myanmar would enter a full partnership framework aimed to better access to electricity and other basic services for about six million people and expected to benefit three million pregnant woman and children through improved health services.^[165] Acquired funding and proper planning has allowed Myanmar to better prepare for the impacts of climate change by enacting programs which teach its people new farming methods, rebuild its infrastructure with materials resilient to natural disasters, and transition various sectors towards reducing greenhouse gas emissions.^[166]
【参考译文】2015年4月，世界银行与缅甸宣布建立全面合作伙伴关系框架，旨在为约600万人提供更好的电力和其他基本服务，并有望通过改善医疗服务使300万孕妇和儿童受益。[165]通过获得资金和妥善规划，缅甸已经能够更好地应对气候变化的影响，制定并实施各种计划，包括教授民众新的耕作方法、使用抗灾材料重建基础设施，以及推动各部门向减少温室气体排放转变。[166]

3.3 生物多样性 | Biodiversity

Main article: Wildlife of Myanmar【主条目：缅甸的野生动物】

Further information: Deforestation in Myanmar and List of protected areas of Myanmar
【更多信息：缅甸的森林砍伐和缅甸保护区列表】

Myanmar is a biodiverse country with more than 16,000 plant, 314 mammal, 1131 bird, 293 reptile, and 139 amphibian species, and 64 terrestrial ecosystems including tropical and subtropical vegetation, seasonally inundated wetlands, shoreline and tidal systems, and alpine ecosystems. Myanmar houses some of the largest intact natural ecosystems in Southeast Asia, but the remaining ecosystems are under threat from land use intensification and over-exploitation. According to the IUCN Red List of Ecosystems categories and criteria more than a third of Myanmar’s land area has been converted to anthropogenic ecosystems over the last 2–3 centuries, and nearly half of its ecosystems are threatened. Despite large gaps in information for some ecosystems, there is a large potential to develop a comprehensive protected area network that protects its terrestrial biodiversity.^[167]
【参考译文】缅甸是一个生物多样性丰富的国家，拥有16,000多种植物、314种哺乳动物、1131种鸟类、293种爬行动物和139种两栖动物，以及包括热带和亚热带植被、季节性淹没湿地、海岸线和潮汐系统以及高山生态系统在内的64种陆地生态系统。缅甸拥有东南亚一些最大的未受破坏的自然生态系统，但剩余的生态系统正受到土地利用集约化和过度开发的威胁。根据《世界自然保护联盟生态系统红色名录》的类别和标准，缅甸超过三分之一的土地面积在过去2-3个世纪中已转变为人为生态系统，近一半的生态系统面临威胁。尽管一些生态系统的信息存在很大空白，但缅甸仍有很大的潜力发展一个全面的保护区网络，以保护其陆地生物多样性。[167]

Myanmar continues to perform badly in the global Environmental Performance Index (EPI) with an overall ranking of 153 out of 180 countries in 2016, among the worst in the South Asian region. The environmental areas where Myanmar performs worst (i.e. highest ranking) are air quality (174), health impacts of environmental issues (143) and biodiversity and habitat (142). Myanmar performs best (i.e. lowest ranking) in environmental impacts of fisheries (21) but with declining fish stocks. Despite several issues, Myanmar also ranks 64 and scores very good (i.e. a high percentage of 93.73%) in environmental effects of the agricultural industry because of an excellent management of the nitrogen cycle.^[168][169] Myanmar is one of the most highly vulnerable countries to climate change; this poses a number of social, political, economic and foreign policy challenges to the country.^[170] The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.18/10, ranking it 49th globally out of 172 countries.^[171]
【参考译文】缅甸在全球环境绩效指数（EPI）中的表现持续不佳，2016年在180个国家中排名第153位，是南亚地区表现最差的国家之一。缅甸在空气质量（174位）、环境问题的健康影响（143位）和生物多样性及栖息地（142位）方面表现最差（即排名最高）。缅甸在渔业环境影响方面表现最好（即排名最低），位列第21位，但鱼类资源却在减少。尽管存在几个问题，但由于对氮循环进行了出色的管理，缅甸在农业行业的环境影响方面也排名第64位，得分很高（即93.73%的高百分比）。[168][169]缅甸是受气候变化影响最大的国家之一；这给缅甸带来了诸多社会、政治、经济和外交政策方面的挑战。[170]该国2019年森林景观完整性指数的平均得分为7.18/10，在全球172个国家中排名第49位。[171]

Myanmar’s slow economic growth has contributed to the preservation of much of its environment and ecosystems. Forests, including dense tropical growth and valuable teak in lower Myanmar, cover over 49% of the country, including areas of acacia, bamboo, ironwood and Magnolia champaca. Coconut and betel palm and rubber have been introduced. In the highlands of the north, oak, pine and various rhododendrons cover much of the land.^[172]
【参考译文】缅甸的经济增长缓慢有助于保护其大部分环境和生态系统。缅甸的森林覆盖率超过49%，包括下缅甸的茂密热带森林和珍贵的柚木，以及金合欢、竹子、铁木和玉兰等区域。此外，还引进了椰子、槟榔和橡胶。在北部高地，橡树、松树和各种杜鹃花覆盖了大片土地。[172]

Heavy logging since the new 1995 forestry law went into effect has seriously reduced forest area and wildlife habitat.^[173] The lands along the coast support all varieties of tropical fruits and once had large areas of mangroves although much of the protective mangroves have disappeared. In much of central Myanmar (the dry zone), vegetation is sparse and stunted.
【参考译文】自1995年新林业法实施以来，大规模的伐木活动严重减少了森林面积和野生动物栖息地。[173]沿海地区土地支持各种热带水果的生长，曾经有大面积的红树林，但许多保护性的红树林已经消失。在缅甸中部的大部分地区（干旱区），植被稀疏且发育不良。

Typical jungle animals, particularly tigers, occur sparsely in Myanmar. In upper Myanmar, there are rhinoceros, wild water buffalo, clouded leopard, wild boars, deer, antelope, and elephants, which are also tamed or bred in captivity for use as work animals, particularly in the lumber industry. Smaller mammals are also numerous, ranging from gibbons and monkeys to flying foxes. The abundance of birds is notable with over 800 species, including parrots, myna, peafowl, red junglefowl, weaverbirds, crows, herons, and barn owl. Among reptile species there are crocodiles, geckos, cobras, Burmese pythons, and turtles. Hundreds of species of freshwater fish are wide-ranging, plentiful and are very important food sources.^[174]
【参考译文】缅甸的丛林动物，尤其是老虎，数量稀少。在缅甸北部，有犀牛、野生水牛、云豹、野猪、鹿、羚羊和大象，它们也被驯养或圈养作为工作动物，特别是在木材行业。小型哺乳动物也数不胜数，从长臂猿和猴子到飞狐猴都有。缅甸的鸟类种类繁多，有800多种，包括鹦鹉、八哥、孔雀、红腹锦鸡、织布鸟、乌鸦、鹭和仓鸮。爬行动物种类包括鳄鱼、壁虎、眼镜蛇、缅甸蟒和乌龟。数百种淡水鱼分布广泛、数量众多，是非常重要的食物来源。[174]

4. 政府和政治 | Government and politics

主条目：缅甸政治和缅甸军事

Myanmar operates de jure as a unitary assembly-independent republic under its 2008 constitution. But in February 2021, the civilian government led by Aung San Suu Kyi, was deposed by the Tatmadaw. In February 2021, Myanmar military declared a one-year state emergency and First Vice President Myint Swe became the Acting President of Myanmar and handed the power to the Commander-in-Chief of Defence Services Min Aung Hlaing and he assumed the role Chairman of the State Administration Council, then Prime Minister. The President of Myanmar acts as the de jure head of state and the Chairman of the State Administration Council acts as the de facto head of government.^[175]
【参考译文】根据2008年宪法，缅甸法律上是一个统一的独立共和国。但2021年2月，由昂山素季领导的民选政府被缅甸国防军推翻。2021年2月，缅甸军方宣布进入为期一年的国家紧急状态，第一副总统敏瑞成为缅甸代总统，并将权力移交给国防军总司令敏昂莱，敏昂莱担任国家管理委员会主席，随后担任总理。缅甸总统是法律上的国家元首，国家管理委员会主席则是事实上的政府首脑。[175]

The constitution of Myanmar, its third since independence, was drafted by its military rulers and published in September 2008. The country is governed as a parliamentary system with a bicameral legislature (with an executive president accountable to the legislature), with 25% of the legislators appointed by the military and the rest elected in general elections.
【参考译文】缅甸宪法是缅甸独立以来的第三部宪法，由军政府起草，并于2008年9月公布。缅甸实行议会制，拥有两院制立法机构（由向立法机构负责的行政总统领导），其中25%的议员由军方任命，其余议员通过大选产生。

The legislature, called the Assembly of the Union, is bicameral and made up of two houses: The 224-seat upper House of Nationalities and the 440-seat lower House of Representatives. The upper house consists 168 members who are directly elected and 56 who are appointed by the Burmese Armed Forces. The lower house consists of 330 members who are directly elected and 110 who are appointed by the armed forces.
【参考译文】缅甸的立法机构称为联邦议会，是两院制，由两个议院组成：拥有224个席位的民族院和拥有440个席位的人民院。民族院由168名直接选举产生的议员和56名由缅甸武装部队任命的议员组成。人民院由330名直接选举产生的议员和110名由武装部队任命的议员组成。

4.1 政治文化 | Political culture

The major political parties are the National League for Democracy and the Union Solidarity and Development Party.
【参考译文】主要政党有全国民主联盟、联邦巩固与发展党。

Myanmar’s army-drafted constitution was approved in a referendum in May 2008. The results, 92.4% of the 22 million voters with an official turnout of 99%, are considered suspect by many international observers and by the National League of Democracy with reports of widespread fraud, ballot stuffing, and voter intimidation.^[176]
【参考译文】缅甸军方起草的宪法在 2008 年 5 月的全民公投中获得批准。结果显示，2200 万选民中，有 92.4% 的人投票成功，官方投票率为 99%。许多国际观察员和全国民主联盟认为这一结果可疑，因为有报道称选举中存在广泛舞弊、选票作弊和选民恐吓等现象。[176]

The elections of 2010 resulted in a victory for the military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party. Various foreign observers questioned the fairness of the elections.^{[177][178][179]} One criticism of the election was that only government-sanctioned political parties were allowed to contest in it and the popular National League for Democracy was declared illegal.^[180] However, immediately following the elections, the government ended the house arrest of the democracy advocate and leader of the National League for Democracy, Aung San Suu Kyi,^[181] and her ability to move freely around the country is considered an important test of the military’s movement toward more openness.^[180]
【参考译文】2010 年大选以军方支持的联邦巩固与发展党获胜告终。许多外国观察家对选举的公正性提出质疑。[177][178][179] 对选举的批评之一是，只有政府批准的政党才被允许参加竞选，而受欢迎的全国民主联盟被宣布为非法。[180] 然而，选举结束后，政府立即结束了对民主倡导者和全国民主联盟领导人昂山素季的软禁[181]，她能否在全国自由行动被认为是对军方走向更加开放的重要考验。[180]

Myanmar rates as a corrupt nation on the Corruption Perceptions Index with a rank of 130th out of 180 countries worldwide, with 1st being least corrupt, as of 2019.^[182]
【参考译文】截至 2019 年，缅甸在腐败感知指数中排名第 130 位（在全球 180 个国家中），被评为腐败国家，其中第 1 位代表腐败程度最低。[182]

4.2 国际关系 | Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Myanmar【主条目：缅甸的国际关系】

主条目：缅甸建交列表

缅甸与周边诸邻邦之关系，详见：中缅关系、印度－缅甸关系、孟加拉国－缅甸关系、新加坡－缅甸关系。

图片题注：Myanmar President Thein Sein meets US President Barack Obama in Yangon, 2012
参考译文：2012 年，缅甸总统登盛在仰光会见美国总统巴拉克·奥巴马

图片作者：Pete Souza

Though the country’s foreign relations, particularly with Western nations, have historically been strained, the situation has markedly improved since the reforms following the 2010 elections. After years of diplomatic isolation and economic and military sanctions,^[183] the United States relaxed curbs on foreign aid to Myanmar in November 2011^[124] and announced the resumption of diplomatic relations on 13 January 2012^[184] The European Union has placed sanctions on Myanmar, including an arms embargo, cessation of trade preferences, and suspension of all aid with the exception of humanitarian aid.^[185]
【参考译文】虽然缅甸的外交关系，尤其是与西方国家的关系，在历史上一直很紧张，但自 2010 年大选后的改革以来，情况已明显改善。经过多年的外交孤立和经济及军事制裁[183]​​，美国于 2011 年 11 月放宽了对缅甸的外国援助限制[124]，并于 2012 年 1 月 13 日宣布恢复外交关系[184]。欧盟对缅甸实施了制裁，包括武器禁运、停止贸易优惠以及暂停除人道主义援助以外的所有援助。[185]

Sanctions imposed by the United States and European countries against the former military government, coupled with boycotts and other direct pressure on corporations by supporters of the democracy movement, have resulted in the withdrawal from the country of most U.S. and many European companies.^[186] Despite Western isolation, Asian corporations have generally remained willing to continue investing in the country and to initiate new investments, particularly in natural resource extraction. The country has close relations with neighbouring India and China with several Indian and Chinese companies operating in the country. Under India’s Look East policy, fields of co-operation between India and Myanmar include remote sensing,^[187] oil and gas exploration,^[188] information technology,^[189] hydropower^[190] and construction of ports and buildings.^[191] Myanmar also has close political relations with Vietnam^[192] and Japan.^[193][194]
【参考译文】美国和欧洲国家对前军政府实施的制裁，加上民主运动支持者对企业的抵制和其他直接压力，导致大多数美国公司和许多欧洲公司撤出该国。[186] 尽管西方被孤立，但亚洲公司总体上仍然愿意继续在该国投资并开展新的投资，特别是在自然资源开采方面。 缅甸与邻国印度和中国关系密切，有几家印度和中国公司在该国运营。 根据印度的“向东看”政策，印度和缅甸的合作领域包括遥感、[187] 石油和天然气勘探、[188] 信息技术、[189] 水电[190] 以及港口和建筑建设。[191] 缅甸还与越南[192] 和日本保持着密切的政治关系。[193][194]

In May 2013, Thein Sein became the first Myanmar president to visit the White House in 47 years. President Barack Obama praised the former general for political and economic reforms and the cessation of tensions between Myanmar and the United States. Political activists objected to the visit because of concerns over human rights abuses in Myanmar, but Obama assured Thein Sein that Myanmar will receive U.S. support. The two governments agreed to sign a bilateral trade and investment framework agreement on 21 May 2013.^[195]
【参考译文】2013 年 5 月，登盛成为 47 年来首位访问白宫的缅甸总统。美国总统巴拉克·奥巴马赞扬这位前将军的政治和经济改革以及缓解缅甸与美国之间的紧张关系。政治活动家因担心缅甸侵犯人权而反对登盛访问，但奥巴马向登盛保证，美国将支持缅甸。两国政府同意于 2013 年 5 月 21 日签署双边贸易和投资框架协议。[195]

In June 2013, Myanmar held its first ever summit, the World Economic Forum on East Asia 2013. A regional spinoff of the annual World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland, the summit was held on 5–7 June and attended by 1,200 participants, including 10 heads of state, 12 ministers and 40 senior directors from around the world.^[196]
【参考译文】2013 年 6 月，缅甸举办了首届世界经济论坛东亚峰会。该峰会是瑞士达沃斯世界经济论坛的地区分支会议，于 6 月 5 日至 7 日举行，共有 1,200 名与会者出席，其中包括 10 位国家元首、12 位部长和来自世界各地的 40 名高级主管。[196]

经贸关系

• 根据美国中央情报局在2012年的资料显示，缅甸联邦共和国的出口总额为95亿美元，主要出口的货品是冰种翡翠和玉、天然木材、农产品、鱼类、衣服、等。中华人民共和国是缅甸联邦共和国的第三大出口伙伴国，占其出口的14.2%。
• 根据美国中央情报局在2012年的资料显示，缅甸的进口总额为55亿美元，主要进口的货品是石油、石化品、塑胶、汽车、机器、水泥、金属、食品、电子品等。中华人民共和国是缅甸联邦共和国的第一大进口伙伴国，占其进口的37%。

4.3 民主改革

主条目：缅甸民主改革

第二次世界大战后及冷战时期，缅甸于1962－1988年，由奈温将军的缅甸社会主义纲领党实行一党专政军事独裁。

1988年，缅甸军武装镇压民众对于经济不振和政治迫害不满的抗议活动。1988年8月8日，军队朝游行示威者开火，该事件被称为8888民主运动。在那之后，缅甸主要政党包括全国民主联盟和掸族民主联盟，其他还有一些代表少数民族利益的政党。原奈温派及部分军系组织缅甸民族团结党，而军政府则扶持联盟团结与发展协会（联邦巩固与发展党的前身）。

1988年的抗议活动为1990年的人民议会选举铺了路，在此次近30年来的首次选举中，由昂山素季所领导的全国民主联盟以超过60%的选票赢得了超过80%的国会席位，然而这次选举结果随后被军政府宣布无效，而昂山素季在选举后遭到军政府的长达六年的软禁，并数次入狱，其后仍被软禁。昂山素季因身为缅甸的民主推动者获得了国际的赞誉，在1991年更获得了诺贝尔和平奖，但自1990年选举至今，昂山素季多次被军政府软禁，军政府对于她人身的控制与监视一直没有停止过。尽管当时的联合国秘书长科菲·安南曾向丹瑞请求释放昂山素季，以及有来自东南亚国家联盟的压力，在2006年5月27日缅甸军政府仍再延长了对昂山素季一年的软禁。虽然该政府正面临着国际上的孤立局面，他们仍旧宣称此为1975年国家保护法案授予的权力，即理论上政府有关押任何人的权力。

1990年12月，由人民议会选举出来的反对派代表们组成了一个以恢复缅甸的民主制度为主要任务的缅甸联邦国家联合政府，该政府为流亡政府，由昂山温所带领，缅甸联邦国家联合政府实际上只拥有相当有限的影响力，且被缅甸军政府宣布为非法组织。

2005年12月，联合国安全理事会在一次非正式研讨会上首次提及缅甸的问题。东南亚国家联盟亦在对缅甸政府表示失望之余成立了东南亚国家联盟内部国会缅甸核心小组会议，并陈述了缅甸缺乏民主的问题。

2010年10月21日，缅甸国家和平与发展委员会颁布法令，缅甸正式启用《缅甸联邦共和国宪法》确定的新国旗、新国徽，国歌保持不变。

2010年11月7日，缅甸依据新宪法举行了一次多党制全国大选，共有37个政党参加大选。大选选举出联邦和省、邦各级议会代表，联邦议会由上院民族院（224席）和下院人民院（440席）组成，然后计划再选举出总统、副总统，组成新政府。其后，现军政府将向新政府移交国家权力。^[24]由于反对派及其领袖昂山素季未能参选，所以这次选举在国内外备受批评，被指普遍存在舞弊行为。^[25]最终联邦巩固与发展党在人民院、民族院分别获得259席与129席成为第一大党^{[26][27][28][29]}。

2011年2月以前，缅甸军政府的领导人为丹瑞，他同时是国家和平与发展委员会主席，拥有所有决策权，包括任命及解除部长和内阁成员的权力，以及处理缅甸在国际政治上的权力。2004年10月19日，梭温替代钦纽成为缅甸总理，后者被视为丹瑞的亲信。2007年5月，梭温因健康因素卸职赴新加坡治疗（至10月12日病逝），由国家和平与发展委员会秘书长登盛出任总理（后为缅甸总统）。

2011年以后实行议会制，然而军方在政府和议会仍具有相当的影响力。在缅甸，除卫生部、教育部、劳工部和国家计划和经济发展部外，大多数部长和内阁都受军队官员控制。

2011年2月4日，缅甸国会选出联邦巩固与发展党的登盛为缅甸总统。3月30日，一名缅甸官员说，军政府最高领导人丹瑞和副领导人貌埃当天退位，下令解散了国家和平与发展委员会（军人政府），将政权移交新政府。4月4日，缅甸官方正式宣布，统治国家将近20年的强人丹瑞已卸下军事领导人的职位。据消息灵通人士透露，目前各政府部门还挂着丹瑞的照片；许多分析家指出，由于登盛是丹瑞的重要亲信，所以78岁的丹瑞还是会在幕后听政。^[25]

据德国之声报导，过去严格管制网络的缅甸，在新政府上台后为强化开明形象，于2011年10月27日宣布，正式解除Facebook、Twitter、BBC、Youtube等曾发表不利缅甸军政府形象的网站封锁，象征缅甸进入网络自由时代^[30]。

2012年4月反对派领袖昂山素季当选缅甸国会下议院议员，于5月2日正式上任^[31]。

2012年8月20日，缅甸政府信息部在其官网上宣布，即日起开始废除对所有缅甸当地出版部门的审查制度。^[32]2012年9月17日，缅甸政府宣布再特赦514名囚犯，包括部分外籍囚犯和政治犯。^[33]

2015年11月8日，举行议会选举。依据缅甸联邦选举委员会在11月13日公布最新计票结果，由昂山素季（Aung San Suu Kyi）领导的“全国民主联盟”（NLD）取得合共390个席次，跨越了过半数的门槛（总共664个议席），取得缅甸联邦议会两院的控制权，成为执政党，全民盟于2016年与军方组建政府。

4.4 军事政变

主条目：2020年缅甸议会选举和2021年缅甸政变

2021年1月26日，缅甸军方举行发布会对大选中选民名单出现的问题提出质疑，军方认定去年底大选存在大规模“选举舞弊”的情况，并表示不排除存在接管政权的可能性。^[34]

2021年1月29日，缅甸内比都、仰光和曼德勒先后出现游行示威活动，要求调查2020年大选中出现的舞弊问题。^[35]

2021年2月1日，缅甸总统温敏和国务资政昂山素季被军方扣押，缅甸军方表态权力已移交给国防军总司令敏昂莱。并宣布实施为期一年的紧急状态。^[35]缅甸多地民众抢购生活必需品。^[34]

2021年3月2日，缅甸军事政变发生逾一个月，反军方的示威者遭受越来越强烈的暴力镇压，至今造成至少60人死亡，有记者周一在家中被警方突击拘捕，律师指至少6名记者被捕。东盟（ASEAN）外长周二召开视像会议后发表声明，呼吁各方避免激起更多暴力，寻找和平方案解决问题；印尼、新加坡、马来西亚、菲律宾外长都呼吁释放缅甸国务资政昂山素季及其他被拘押领袖。新加坡总理李显龙周二就局势发表意见，称缅甸政府向平民使用致命武力是不可接受。^[36]

2021年3月14日，示威转趋暴力，发生流血冲突^[37][38]。 晚间，缅甸国家管理委员会宣布仰光部分地区实施军事管制^[39][40]。3月20日，有8人在曼德勒的反军方抗议中丧生^[41]。3月27日，缅甸民众于建军节在仰光和曼德勒多个城市上街示威，军队武力镇压，造成至少114人死亡，遇难者包括儿童。共有十二个国家的国防部长发表联合声明谴责缅甸军政府武力镇压示威者^[42]，联合国秘书长古特雷斯呼吁国际社会强硬回应缅甸军政府的行为^[43][44]。

4.5 军事 | Military

Main article: Armed forces of Myanmar【主条目：缅甸的武装力量】

Since the late 1950s, Myanmar’s military has had major roles in Myanmar’s politics.^[197]: 23
【参考译文】自 20 世纪 50 年代末以来，缅甸军方在缅甸政治中扮演着重要角色。[197]: 23

Myanmar has received extensive military aid from China in the past.^[198] Myanmar has been a member of ASEAN since 1997. Though it gave up its turn to hold the ASEAN chair and host the ASEAN Summit in 2006, it chaired the forum and hosted the summit in 2014.^[199] In November 2008, Myanmar’s political situation with neighbouring Bangladesh became tense as they began searching for natural gas in a disputed block of the Bay of Bengal.^[200] Controversy surrounding the Rohingya population also remains an issue between Bangladesh and Myanmar.^[201]
【参考译文】缅甸过去曾从中国获得大量军事援助。[198]缅甸自1997年起成为东盟成员国。虽然缅甸在2006年放弃了担任东盟主席国和举办东盟峰会的轮值权，但它在2014年担任了论坛主席国并举办了峰会。[199]2008年11月，缅甸与邻国孟加拉国的政治局势因两国在孟加拉湾有争议的海域开始勘探天然气而变得紧张。[200]围绕罗兴亚人口的争议也仍然是孟加拉国和缅甸之间的问题。[201]

Myanmar’s armed forces are known as the Tatmadaw, which numbers 488,000. The Tatmadaw comprises the Army, the Navy, and the Air Force. The country ranked twelfth in the world for its number of active troops in service.^[40] The military is very influential in Myanmar, with all top cabinet and ministry posts usually held by military officials. Official figures for military spending are not available. Estimates vary widely because of uncertain exchange rates, but Myanmar’s military forces’ expenses are high.^[202] Myanmar imports most of its weapons from Russia, Ukraine, China and India.
【参考译文】缅甸的武装部队被称为国防军，共有488,000人。国防军由陆军、海军和空军组成。缅甸现役军人数量在世界排名第十二。[40]缅甸军方非常有影响力，所有内阁和部长的最高职位通常由军方官员担任。没有军事支出的官方数字。由于汇率不确定，估计数字差异很大，但缅甸军方的开支很高。[202]缅甸的大部分武器从俄罗斯、乌克兰、中国和印度进口。

Myanmar is building a research nuclear reactor near Pyin Oo Lwin with help from Russia. It is one of the signatories of the nuclear non-proliferation pact since 1992 and a member of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) since 1957. The military junta had informed the IAEA in September 2000 of its intention to construct the reactor.^[203][204] In 2010 as part of the leaked diplomatic cables, Myanmar was suspected of using North Korean construction teams to build a fortified surface-to-air missile facility.^[205] As of 2019, the United States Bureau of Arms Control assessed that Myanmar is not in violation of its obligations under the Non-Proliferation Treaty but that the Myanmar government had a history of non-transparency on its nuclear programs and aims.^[206]
【参考译文】缅甸正在俄罗斯的帮助下，在掸邦高原附近的彬乌伦建造一座研究用核反应堆。缅甸自1992年以来一直是《核不扩散条约》的签署国之一，自1957年以来一直是国际原子能机构（IAEA）的成员国。军政府于2000年9月通知国际原子能机构，表示有意建造该反应堆。[203][204]2010年，作为泄露的外交电报的一部分，缅甸被怀疑利用朝鲜施工队建造一座加固的地对空导弹设施。[205]截至2019年，美国军备控制局评估认为，缅甸没有违反其在《不扩散条约》下的义务，但缅甸政府在其核计划和目标方面存在不透明的历史。[206]

Until 2005, the United Nations General Assembly annually adopted a detailed resolution about the situation in Myanmar by consensus.^{[207][208][209][210]} But in 2006 a divided United Nations General Assembly voted through a resolution that strongly called upon the government of Myanmar to end its systematic violations of human rights.^[211] In January 2007, Russia and China vetoed a draft resolution before the United Nations Security Council^[212] calling on the government of Myanmar to respect human rights and begin a democratic transition. South Africa also voted against the resolution.^[213]
【参考译文】直到2005年，联合国大会每年都通过了一项关于缅甸局势的详细决议。[207][208][209][210]但在2006年，意见不一的联合国大会通过了一项决议，强烈呼吁缅甸政府停止系统性地侵犯人权。[211]2007年1月，俄罗斯和中国在联合国安理会前对一项呼吁缅甸政府尊重人权并开始民主过渡的决议草案投了否决票。[212]南非也对这一决议投了反对票。[213]

4.6 人权和国内冲突 | Human rights and internal conflicts

Main articles: Human rights in Myanmar and Internal conflict in Myanmar
【主条目：缅甸人权和缅甸国内冲突】

图片题注：Map of conflict zones in Myanmar. States and regions affected by fighting during and after 1995 are highlighted in yellow.
参考译文：缅甸冲突地区地图。1995 年及之后受战争影响的各州和地区以黄色标出。

图片作者：Lee Yuet-man

图片题注：Mae La camp, Tak, Thailand, one of the largest of nine UNHCR camps in Thailand^[225]

参考译文：泰国达府湄拉难民营是联合国难民署在泰国设立的九个难民营中最大的一个[225]

图片来源：Mikhail Esteves from Bangalore, India

There is consensus that the former military regime in Myanmar (1962–2010) was one of the world’s most repressive and abusive regimes.^[214][215] In November 2012, Samantha Power, Barack Obama’s Special Assistant to the President on Human Rights, wrote on the White House blog that “Serious human rights abuses against civilians in several regions continue, including against women and children.”^[111] Members of the United Nations and major international human rights organisations have issued repeated and consistent reports of widespread and systematic human rights violations in Myanmar. The United Nations General Assembly has repeatedly^[216] called on the Burmese military junta to respect human rights and in November 2009 the General Assembly adopted a resolution “strongly condemning the ongoing systematic violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms” and calling on the Burmese military regime “to take urgent measures to put an end to violations of international human rights and humanitarian law.”^[217]
【参考译文】人们普遍认为，缅甸前军事政权（1962年至2010年）是世界上最专制、最滥用职权的政权之一。[214][215]2012年11月，美国总统人权事务特别助理萨曼莎·鲍尔在白宫博客上写道，“包括妇女和儿童在内的几个地区的平民继续受到严重的人权侵犯”。[111]联合国成员和主要国际人权组织多次发布一致报告，称缅甸普遍存在系统性人权侵犯行为。联合国大会多次[216]呼吁缅甸军政府尊重人权，并在2009年11月通过了一项决议，“强烈谴责缅甸不断发生的系统性侵犯人权和基本自由的行为”，并呼吁缅甸军政府“采取紧急措施，制止违反国际人权法和国际人道主义法的行为”。[217]

International human rights organisations including Human Rights Watch^[218] and Amnesty International^[219] have repeatedly documented and condemned widespread human rights violations in Myanmar. The Freedom in the World 2011 report by Freedom House notes, “The military junta has … suppressed nearly all basic rights; and committed human rights abuses with impunity.” In July 2013, the Assistance Association for Political Prisoners indicated that there were approximately 100 political prisoners being held in Burmese prisons.^{[220][221][222][223]} Evidence gathered by a British researcher was published in 2005 regarding the extermination or “Burmisation” of certain ethnic minorities, such as the Karen, Karenni and Shan.^[224]
【参考译文】包括人权观察组织[218]和大赦国际[219]在内的国际人权组织反复记录和谴责缅甸普遍存在的侵犯人权行为。自由之家发布的《2011年世界自由报告》指出，“军政府……压制了几乎所有基本权利，并且肆无忌惮地侵犯人权。”2013年7月，政治犯援助协会指出，缅甸监狱中大约关押着100名政治犯。[220][221][222][223]2005年，一名英国研究人员公布了有关灭绝或“缅甸化”某些少数民族（如克伦族、克伦尼族和掸族）的证据。[224]

Based on the evidence gathered by Amnesty photographs and video of the ongoing armed conflict between the Myanmar military and the Arakan Army (AA), attacks escalated on civilians in Rakhine State. Ming Yu Hah, Amnesty International‘s Deputy Regional Director for Campaigns said, the UN Security Council must urgently refer the situation in Myanmar to the International Criminal Court.^[226] The military is notorious for rampant use of sexual violence.^[22]
【参考译文】根据大赦国际收集的证据，缅甸军方与若开军（AA）之间持续的武装冲突的照片和视频显示，若开邦的平民袭击事件不断升级。大赦国际运动事务副区域主任明于哈哈表示，联合国安理会必须紧急将缅甸局势提交给国际刑事法院。[226]缅甸军方臭名昭著，肆意使用性暴力。[22]

4.6.1 儿童兵 | Child soldiers

Child soldiers were reported in 2012 to have played a major part in the Burmese Army.^[227] The Independent reported in June 2012 that “Children are being sold as conscripts into the Burmese military for as little as $40 and a bag of rice or a can of petrol.”^[228] In September 2012, the Myanmar Armed Forces released 42 child soldiers, and the International Labour Organization met with representatives of the government as well as the Kachin Independence Army to secure the release of more child soldiers.^[229]
【参考译文】据报道，2012年缅甸军队中儿童兵占很大比例。[227]2012年6月，《独立报》报道，“儿童被以40美元和一袋大米或一罐汽油的价格卖给缅甸军队作为应征入伍者”。[228]2012年9月，缅甸武装部队释放了42名儿童兵，国际劳工组织会见了政府代表和克钦独立军代表，以确保释放更多儿童兵。[229]

4.6.2 奴隶制和人口贩卖 | Slavery and human trafficking

Further information: Sex trafficking in Myanmar【更多信息：缅甸的性交易】

Forced labour and human trafficking are common in Myanmar.^[230] Human trafficking happens mostly to women who are unemployed and have low incomes. They are deceived by brokers that better opportunities and wages exist for them abroad.^[231]
【参考译文】在缅甸，强迫劳动和人口贩运现象很普遍。[230]人口贩运主要发生在失业和低收入的妇女身上。她们被经纪人欺骗，认为在国外有更好的机会和工资。[231]

In 2017, the government reported 185 trafficking cases. The government of Burma makes little effort to eliminate human trafficking. The U.S. State Department reported that both the government and Tatmadaw were complicit in sex and labour trafficking.^[232] Women and girls from all ethnic groups and foreigners have been victims of sex trafficking in Myanmar.^[227] They are forced into prostitution, marriages or pregnancies.^[233][234] Sex trafficking in Myanmar has been fuelled by factors like internal conflict, political instability, land confiscation,^[235] poor border management,^[236][237] and government restrictions on providing travel documents.^[233]
【参考译文】2017年，缅甸政府报告了185起人口贩运案件。缅甸政府几乎没有为消除人口贩运做出努力。美国国务院报告称，政府和缅甸军方都参与了性贩运和劳动贩运。[232]缅甸各民族群体和外国妇女及女童都是性贩运的受害者。[227]她们被迫卖淫、结婚或怀孕。[233][234]缅甸的性贩运受到内部冲突、政治不稳定、土地没收[235]、边境管理不善[236][237]和政府限制提供旅行证件[233]等因素的推动。

A cyber-scam industry in Myanmar’s borderlands has involved human trafficking, forced labour and other abuses.^[238]Many of the scam centres are in territories controlled by junta allies like the Border Guard Force.^[238] In August 2023, a report from the Office of the U.N. High Commissioner for Human Rights noted that at least 120,000 people in Myanmar were trapped in such centres by criminal gangs.^[239]
【参考译文】缅甸边境地区的网络诈骗行业涉及人口贩卖、强迫劳动和其他虐待行为。[238]许多诈骗中心都位于边防警卫队等军政府盟友控制的地区。[238] 2023 年 8 月，联合国人权事务高级专员办事处的一份报告指出，缅甸至少有 120,000 人被犯罪团伙困在这样的中心。[239]

4.6.3 针对罗兴亚人的种族灭绝指控和罪行 | Genocide allegations and crimes against Rohingya people

See also: Rohingya conflict, 2013 Myanmar anti-Muslim riots, and Rohingya genocide
【另请参阅：罗兴亚冲突、2013 年缅甸反穆斯林骚乱和罗兴亚种族灭绝】

图片题注：Displaced Rohingya people of Myanmar^[240][241]
参考译文：缅甸流离失所的罗兴亚人[240][241]

图片来源：Foreign and Commonwealth Office

图片题注：A Rohingya refugee camp in Bangladesh
参考译文：孟加拉国的罗兴亚难民营

图片作者：John Owens (VOA)

The Rohingya people have consistently faced human rights abuses by the Burmese regime that has refused to acknowledge them as Burmese citizens (despite some of them having lived in Burma for over three generations)—the Rohingya have been denied Burmese citizenship since the enactment of a 1982 citizenship law.^[242] The Burmese regime has attempted to forcibly expel Rohingya and bring in non-Rohingyas to replace them^[243]—this policy has resulted in the expulsion of approximately half of the 800,000^[244] Rohingya from Burma, while the Rohingya people have been described as “among the world’s least wanted”^[245] and “one of the world’s most persecuted minorities.”^{[243][246][247]}
【参考译文】罗兴亚人一直受到缅甸政权的侵犯人权，缅甸政权拒绝承认他们为缅甸公民（尽管其中一些人已在缅甸生活了三代以上）——自1982年公民法颁布以来，罗兴亚人一直未获得缅甸公民身份。[242]缅甸政权曾试图强行驱逐罗兴亚人，并引入非罗兴亚人取而代之[243]——这一政策导致约一半的80万罗兴亚人[244]被驱逐出缅甸，而罗兴亚人被描述为“世界上最不受欢迎的人”[245]和“世界上受迫害最严重的少数民族之一”。[243][246][247]

Rohingya are not allowed to travel without official permission, are banned from owning land, and are required to sign a commitment to have no more than two children.^[242] As of July 2012, the Myanmar government does not include the Rohingya minority group—classified as stateless Bengali Muslims from Bangladesh since 1982—on the government’s list of more than 130 ethnic races and, therefore, the government states that they have no claim to Myanmar citizenship.^[248]
【参考译文】罗兴亚人在没有官方许可的情况下不得旅行，被禁止拥有土地，并需签署承诺只生两个孩子。[242]截至2012年7月，缅甸政府未将罗兴亚少数民族群体——自1982年以来被归类为来自孟加拉国的无国籍孟加拉穆斯林——列入政府130多个民族种族的名单，因此政府表示他们无权获得缅甸公民身份。[248]

Since the democratic transition began in 2011, there has been continuous violence as 280 people have been killed and 140,000 forced to flee from their homes in the Rakhine state in 2014.^[249] A UN envoy reported in March 2013 that unrest had re-emerged between Myanmar’s Buddhist and Muslim communities, with violence spreading to towns that are located closer to Yangon.^[250]
【参考译文】自2011年民主转型开始以来，缅甸暴力事件不断，2014年若开邦有280人被杀害，14万人被迫逃离家园。[249]联合国特使于2013年3月报告称，缅甸佛教和穆斯林社区之间的动乱再次爆发，暴力事件蔓延至更接近仰光的城镇。[250]

4.6.4 政府改革 | Government reforms

According to the Crisis Group,^[251] since Myanmar transitioned to a new government in August 2011, the country’s human rights record has been improving. Previously giving Myanmar its lowest rating of 7, the 2012 Freedom in the World report also notes improvement, giving Myanmar a 6 for improvements in civil liberties and political rights, the release of political prisoners, and a loosening of restrictions.^[252] In 2013, Myanmar improved yet again, receiving a score of 5 in civil liberties and 6 in political freedoms.^[253]
【参考译文】据国际危机组织[251]称，自 2011 年 8 月缅甸过渡到新政府以来，该国的人权记录一直在改善。此前，缅甸的评分为 7 分，为该国历史最低，2012 年《世界自由报告》也指出了缅甸的进步，缅甸在公民自由和政治权利方面取得进步，释放政​​治犯，放松限制，得分为 6 分。[252] 2013 年，缅甸再次取得进步，公民自由得分为 5 分，政治自由得分为 6 分。[253]

The government has assembled a National Human Rights Commission that consists of 15 members from various backgrounds.^[254] Several activists in exile, including Thee Lay Thee Anyeint members, have returned to Myanmar after President Thein Sein’s invitation to expatriates to return home to work for national development.^[255] In an address to the United Nations Security Council on 22 September 2011, Myanmar’s Foreign Minister Wunna Maung Lwin confirmed the government’s intention to release prisoners in the near future.^[256]
【参考译文】政府已成立一个由来自不同背景的 15 名成员组成的国家人权委员会。[254] 在总统登盛邀请侨民回国为国家发展而努力后，包括 Thee Lay Thee Anyeint 成员在内的几名流亡活动人士已返回缅甸。[255] 2011 年 9 月 22 日，缅甸外交部长温纳貌伦在向联合国安全理事会发表讲话时证实，政府打算在不久的将来释放囚犯。[256]

The government has also relaxed reporting laws, but these remain highly restrictive.^[257] In September 2011, several banned websites, including YouTube, Democratic Voice of Burma and Voice of America, were unblocked.^[258] A 2011 report by the Hauser Center for Nonprofit Organizations found that, while contact with the Myanmar government was constrained by donor restrictions, international humanitarian non-governmental organisations (NGOs) see opportunities for effective advocacy with government officials, especially at the local level. At the same time, international NGOs are mindful of the ethical quandary of how to work with the government without bolstering or appeasing it.^[259]
【参考译文】政府还放宽了报道法律，但这些法律仍然非常严格。[257] 2011 年 9 月，包括 YouTube、缅甸民主之声和美国之音在内的几个被禁网站被解禁。[258] 豪泽非营利组织中心 2011 年的一份报告发现，尽管与缅甸政府的联系受到捐助者限制的限制，但国际人道主义非政府组织 (NGO) 看到了向政府官员进行有效宣传的机会，尤其是在地方层面。与此同时，国际非政府组织也意识到如何在不支持或安抚政府的情况下与政府合作的道德困境。[259]

5. 经济 | Economy

Main article: Economy of Myanmar / 主条目：缅甸经济

Further information: Golden Triangle (Southeast Asia), Transport in Myanmar, and Oil and gas industry in Myanmar【更多信息：金三角（东南亚）、缅甸交通、缅甸石油和天然气工业】

Myanmar’s economy is one of the fastest growing economies in the world with a nominal GDP of US$76.09 billion in 2019 and an estimated purchasing power adjusted GDP of US$327.629 billion in 2017 according to the World Bank.^{[265][improper synthesis?]} Foreigners are able to legally lease but not own property.^[266] In December 2014, Myanmar set up its first stock exchange, the Yangon Stock Exchange.^[267]
【参考译文】缅甸经济是世界上增长最快的经济体之一，根据世界银行的数据，2019 年名义 GDP 为 760.9 亿美元，2017 年购买力调整后的 GDP 估计为 3276.29 亿美元。[265][不当综合？]外国人可以合法租赁但不能拥有财产。[266] 2014 年 12 月，缅甸成立了第一家证券交易所——仰光证券交易所。[267]

21世纪初的缅甸经济总体水平，并没有在二次大战之后有大幅的提高，反而比二次大战前还低。据比较权威的估算，1936年缅甸国内生产总值（GDP）已达121.97亿美元（当时人口1570.8万），人均年收入776美元，而2004年11月的统计数字，缅甸国民人均年生产总值仅356美元，人均年收入自然比这个数字更低，远不及二战前的人均年收入776美元。可见缅甸的经济发展几乎陷入停顿或倒退。

The informal economy’s share in Myanmar is one of the biggest in the world and is closely linked to corruption, smuggling and illegal trade activities.^[268][269] In addition, decades of civil war and unrest have contributed to Myanmar’s current levels of poverty and lack of economic progress. Myanmar lacks adequate infrastructure. Goods travel primarily across the Thai border (where most illegal drugs are exported) and along the Irrawaddy River.^[270] Notably, opium production in Myanmar is the world’s second-largest source of opium after Afghanistan, producing some 25% of the world’s opium, forming part of the Golden Triangle. While opium poppy cultivation in Myanmar had declined year-on-year since 2015, cultivation area increased by 33% totalling 40,100 hectares alongside an 88% increase in yield potential to 790 tonnes in 2022 according to latest data from the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) Myanmar Opium Survey 2022.^[271] With that said, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) has also warned that opium production in Myanmar may rise again if the economic crunch brought on by COVID-19 and the country’s February 1 military coup persists, with significant public health and security consequences for much of Asia.^[272] At the same time, the Golden Triangle, and specifically Shan State of Myanmar, is believed to be the largest methamphetamine producing area in the world. The growing signs of an intensification of methamphetamine manufacturing activity within and around the Golden Triangle, and a corresponding decrease in the number of production facilities dismantled in other parts of the region, suggests that methamphetamine manufacture in East and Southeast Asia is now consolidated into the lower Mekong region.^[273] Countries in East and Southeast Asia have collectively witnessed sustained increases in seizures of methamphetamine over the last decade, totalling over 171 tons and a record of over 1 billion methamphetamine tablets in 2021 according to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, more than any other part of the world.^[274] In April and May 2020, Myanmar authorities reported Asia’s largest ever drug operation in Shan State totalling what was believed to be 193 million methamphetamine tablets, hundreds of kilogrammes of crystal methamphetamine as well as some heroin, and over 162,000 litres and 35.5 tons of drug precursors as well as sophisticated production equipment and several staging and storage facilities.^[275]
【参考译文】缅甸的非正式经济占全球非正式经济比重最大，与腐败、走私和非法贸易活动密切相关。[268][269]此外，数十年的内战和动荡也导致了缅甸目前的贫困水平以及经济缺乏进展。缅甸缺乏适当的基础设施。货物主要通过泰国边境（大部分非法毒品都出口到那里）和伊洛瓦底江运输。[270]值得注意的是，缅甸的鸦片生产是仅次于阿富汗的世界第二大鸦片来源，生产了世界上约25%的鸦片，是金三角的一部分。根据联合国毒品和犯罪问题办公室（UNODC）2022年缅甸鸦片调查的最新数据，尽管缅甸的罂粟种植自2015年以来逐年减少，但种植面积增加了33%，达到40100公顷，潜在产量也增加了88%，达到790吨。[271]尽管如此，联合国毒品和犯罪问题办公室（UNODC）也警告说，如果由COVID-19和2月1日缅甸军事政变引发的经济困境持续下去，缅甸的鸦片生产可能会再次上升，给亚洲大部分地区带来严重的公共卫生和安全后果。[272]同时，金三角，特别是缅甸的掸邦，被认为是世界上最大的甲基苯丙胺生产区。金三角地区内外甲基苯丙胺制造活动加剧的迹象越来越多，而该地区其他部分被拆除的生产设施数量相应减少，这表明东亚和东南亚的甲基苯丙胺制造现已整合到湄公河下游地区。[273]联合国毒品和犯罪问题办公室指出，过去十年来，东亚和东南亚国家缴获的甲基苯丙胺数量持续增加，2021年总计超过171吨，甲基苯丙胺片剂数量创纪录地超过10亿片，超过世界其他地区。[274]2020年4月和5月，缅甸当局报告称，在掸邦开展了亚洲有史以来规模最大的毒品行动，缴获了据信为1.93亿片甲基苯丙胺片剂、数百公斤冰毒以及一些海洛因，以及超过162000升和35.5吨的毒品前体，以及先进的生产设备和多个中转站和储存设施。[275]

2011年，总统登盛上台，缅甸实行全面经济改革，放宽投资政策，改革税率及法律制度，外来投资金额由2010年的300万美元大幅提升至2011年的20亿美元，比率达667:1。货币政策的改变使缅币升值近25%，2011年的经济增长率为8.8%，国民人均年生产总值上升至1300美元。

缅甸政府大量投资基建，耗资580亿美元成立土瓦经济特区，将与深水港为中心，占地约万公顷，目前缅甸政府已经和泰国建立多项合作，以后将建设水力发电厂、石化厂和炼油厂等项目，而中国、韩国和印度都表示相当的兴趣投资。缅甸政府期望打造缅甸成东南亚以至印度洋地区的新经济中心。

Both China and India have attempted to strengthen ties with the government for economic benefit in the early 2010s. Many Western nations, including the United States and Canada, and the European Union, historically imposed investment and trade sanctions on Myanmar. The United States and European Union eased most of their sanctions in 2012.^[276] From May 2012 to February 2013, the United States began to lift its economic sanctions on Myanmar “in response to the historic reforms that have been taking place in that country.”^[277] Foreign investment comes primarily from China, Singapore, the Philippines, South Korea, India, and Thailand.^[278] The military has stakes in some major industrial corporations of the country (from oil production and consumer goods to transportation and tourism).^[279][280]
【参考译文】2010 年代初，中国和印度都试图加强与缅甸政府的联系，以获取经济利益。包括美国、加拿大和欧盟在内的许多西方国家都曾对缅甸实施投资和贸易制裁。美国和欧盟在 2012 年放松了大部分制裁。[276] 2012 年 5 月至 2013 年 2 月，美国开始解除对缅甸的经济制裁，“以回应该国正在进行的历史性改革”。[277] 外国投资主要来自中国、新加坡、菲律宾、韩国、印度和泰国。[278] 军方在该国一些大型工业公司拥有股份（从石油生产和消费品到运输和旅游业）。[279][280]

缅甸于1997年7月23日加入东南亚国家联盟（东盟），并与诸如东盟－中国自由贸易区、东盟－韩国自由贸易区、东盟－日本全面经济伙伴关系，东盟－澳大利亚，新西兰自由贸易区和东盟－印度自由贸易区等对话伙伴一起，积极参加东盟及相关的自由贸易协定。缅甸的经济政策主张与东盟经济共同体的目标吻合非常重要，能够促进商品和服务、投资、熟练劳动力形成，保证更大的贸易流量，以提升该地区的全球竞争力。

缅甸还与东盟其他国家一起参加东亚峰会（EAS），就印度-太平洋地区面临的主要政治、安全和经济挑战进行战略对话与合作。

5.1 经济历史 | Economic history

Under the British administration, the people of Burma were at the bottom of the social hierarchy, with Europeans at the top, Indians, Chinese, and Christianized minorities in the middle, and Buddhist Burmese at the bottom.^[281] Forcefully integrated into the world economy, Burma’s economy grew by involving itself with extractive industries and cash crop agriculture. However, much of the wealth was concentrated in the hands of Europeans. The country became the world’s largest exporter of rice, mainly to European markets, while other colonies like India suffered mass starvation.^[282] Being a follower of free market principles, the British opened up the country to large-scale immigration with Rangoon exceeding New York City as the greatest immigration port in the world in the 1920s. Historian Thant Myint-U states, “This was out of a total population of only 13 million; it was equivalent to the United Kingdom today taking 2 million people a year.” By then, in most of Burma’s largest cities, Rangoon, Akyab, Bassein and Moulmein, the Indian immigrants formed a majority of the population. The Burmese under British rule felt helpless, and reacted with a “racism that combined feelings of superiority and fear”.^[281]
【参考译文】在英国统治下，缅甸人民位于社会等级的最底层，而欧洲人则位于最顶层，印度人、中国人以及信奉基督教的少数群体位于中间，而信奉佛教的缅甸人则位于最底层。[281]缅甸被强行纳入世界经济，其经济发展依赖于采矿业和现金作物农业。然而，大部分财富却集中在欧洲人手中。缅甸成为世界上最大的稻米出口国，出口对象主要是欧洲市场，而其他殖民地如印度却遭受了大规模饥荒。[282]英国作为自由市场原则的信奉者，向缅甸开放了大规模移民。20世纪20年代，仰光成为世界上最大的移民港口，超越了纽约市。历史学家Thant Myint-U表示，“当时缅甸总人口只有1300万，这相当于今天的英国每年接收200万人。”到那时，在缅甸大多数大城市，如仰光、阿恰布、白古和毛淡棉，印度移民都占人口的多数。在英国统治下的缅甸人感到无助，并产生了“将优越感和恐惧感相结合的种族主义”。[281]

Crude oil production, an indigenous industry of Yenangyaung, was taken over by the British and put under Burmah Oil monopoly. British Burma began exporting crude oil in 1853.^[283] European firms produced 75% of the world’s teak.^[39] The wealth was, however, mainly concentrated in the hands of Europeans. In the 1930s, agricultural production fell dramatically as international rice prices declined and did not recover for several decades.^[284] During the Japanese invasion of Burma in World War II, the British followed a scorched earth policy. They destroyed major government buildings, oil wells and mines that developed for tungsten (Mawchi), tin, lead and silver to keep them from the Japanese. Myanmar was bombed extensively by the Allies.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】原油生产是延安羌的本土产业，后来被英国接管，并由缅甸石油公司垄断。1853 年，英属缅甸开始出口原油。[283] 欧洲公司生产了世界上 75% 的柚木。[39] 然而，财富主要集中在欧洲人手中。20 世纪 30 年代，随着国际大米价格下跌，农业产量急剧下降，几十年来都没有恢复。[284] 第二次世界大战期间，日本入侵缅甸，英国采取焦土政策。他们摧毁了主要的政府建筑、油井和钨矿（Mawchi）、锡矿、铅矿和银矿，以防止日本人开采。缅甸遭到盟军大规模轰炸。[引证需要]

After independence, the country was in ruins with its major infrastructure completely destroyed. With the loss of India, Burma lost relevance and obtained independence from the British. After a parliamentary government was formed in 1948, Prime Minister U Nu embarked upon a policy of nationalisation and the state was declared the owner of all of the land in Burma. The government tried to implement an eight-year plan partly financed by injecting money into the economy, but this caused inflation to rise.^[285] The 1962 coup d’état was followed by an economic scheme called the Burmese Way to Socialism, a plan to nationalise all industries, with the exception of agriculture. While the economy continued to grow at a slower rate, the country eschewed a Western-oriented development model, and by the 1980s, was left behind capitalist powerhouses like Singapore which were integrated with Western economies.^[286][92] Myanmar asked for admittance to a least developed country status in 1987 to receive debt relief.^[287]
【参考译文】独立后，缅甸满目疮痍，主要基础设施完全被摧毁。随着印度脱离英国独立，缅甸也失去了其原有的重要性，并获得了独立。1948年议会政府成立后，总理吴努（U Nu）开始实施国有化政策，并宣布国家为缅甸所有土地的所有者。政府试图实施一项为期八年的计划，部分资金通过向经济注资来筹集，但这导致了通货膨胀加剧。[285] 1962年政变后，缅甸实施了一项名为“缅甸社会主义道路”的经济计划，该计划旨在将除农业以外的所有行业国有化。虽然经济继续以较慢的速度增长，但缅甸摒弃了以西方为导向的发展模式，到20世纪80年代，缅甸已经落后于新加坡等已经与西方经济融合的资本主义强国。[286][92] 1987年，缅甸申请成为最不发达国家，以获得债务减免。[287]

5.2 农业 | Agriculture

Further information: Agriculture in Myanmar【延伸阅读：缅甸的农业】

The major agricultural product is rice, which covers about 60% of the country’s total cultivated land area. Rice accounts for 97% of total food grain production by weight. Through collaboration with the International Rice Research Institute, 52 modern rice varieties were released in the country between 1966 and 1997, helping increase national rice production to 14 million tons in 1987 and to 19 million tons in 1996. By 1988, modern varieties were planted on half of the country’s ricelands, including 98 percent of the irrigated areas.^[288] In 2008 rice production was estimated at 50 million tons.^[289]
【参考译文】缅甸的主要农产品是稻米，约占全国总耕地面积的60%。稻米占粮食总产量的97%（按重量计）。通过与国际水稻研究所的合作，缅甸在1966年至1997年期间推出了52个现代水稻品种，帮助国家稻米产量在1987年达到1400万吨，在1996年达到1900万吨。到1988年，缅甸一半的水稻田都种植了现代水稻品种，包括98%的灌溉区。[288] 2008年，缅甸的稻米产量估计为5000万吨。[289]

5.3 采掘业 | Extractive industries

Myanmar produces precious stones such as rubies, sapphires, pearls, and jade. Rubies are the biggest earner; 90% of the world’s rubies come from the country, whose red stones are prized for their purity and hue. Thailand buys the majority of the country’s gems. Myanmar’s “Valley of Rubies”, the mountainous Mogok area, 200 km (120 mi) north of Mandalay, is noted for its rare pigeon’s blood rubies and blue sapphires.^[290]
【参考译文】缅甸生产红宝石、蓝宝石、珍珠和翡翠等宝石。其中，红宝石的收益最大；世界上90%的红宝石都来自缅甸，缅甸的红宝石因其纯度和色调而受到青睐。泰国是缅甸宝石的主要买家。缅甸的“红宝石谷”——位于曼德勒以北200公里（120英里）的山地抹谷地区，以盛产稀有的鸽血红宝石和蓝色蓝宝石而闻名。[290]

Many U.S. and European jewellery companies, including Bulgari, Tiffany and Cartier, refuse to import these stones based on reports of deplorable working conditions in the mines. Human Rights Watch has encouraged a complete ban on the purchase of Burmese gems based on these reports and because nearly all profits go to the ruling junta, as the majority of mining activity in the country is government-run.^[291] The government of Myanmar controls the gem trade by direct ownership or by joint ventures with private owners of mines.^[292]
【参考译文】许多美国和欧洲珠宝公司，包括宝格丽、蒂芙尼和卡地亚，都拒绝进口这些宝石，理由是矿场工作条件恶劣。人权观察组织呼吁全面禁止购买缅甸宝石，理由是这些报告以及几乎所有利润都流向执政军政府，因为该国大部分采矿活动都是政府经营的。[291] 缅甸政府通过直接所有权或与私人矿主合资来控制宝石贸易。[292]

Rare-earth elements are also a significant export, as Myanmar supplies around 10% of the world’s rare earths.^[293] Conflict in Kachin State has threatened the operations of its mines as of February 2021.^[294][295]
【参考译文】稀土元素也是缅甸的重要出口产品，因为缅甸供应了全球约 10% 的稀土。[293] 截至 2021 年 2 月，克钦邦的冲突已威胁到该邦矿山的运营。[294][295]

Other industries include agricultural goods, textiles, wood products, construction materials, gems, metals, oil and natural gas. Myanmar Engineering Society has identified at least 39 locations capable of geothermal power production and some of these hydrothermal reservoirs lie quite close to Yangon which is a significant underutilised resource for electrical production.^[296]
【参考译文】其他行业包括农产品、纺织品、木制品、建筑材料、宝石、金属、石油和天然气。缅甸工程学会已确定至少 39 个能够进行地热发电的地点，其中一些热液储层距离仰光相当近，是未充分利用的重要电力生产资源。[296]

5.4 旅游业 | Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Myanmar【主条目：缅甸的旅游业】

The government receives a significant percentage of the income of private-sector tourism services.^[297] The most popular available tourist destinations in Myanmar include big cities such as Yangon and Mandalay; religious sites in Mon State, Pindaya, Bago and Hpa-An; nature trails in Inle Lake, Kengtung, Putao, Pyin Oo Lwin; ancient cities such as Bagan and Mrauk-U; as well as beaches in Nabule,^[298] Ngapali, Ngwe-Saung, and Mergui.^[299] Nevertheless, much of the country is off-limits to tourists, and interactions between foreigners and the people of Myanmar, particularly in the border regions, are subject to police scrutiny. They are not to discuss politics with foreigners, under penalty of imprisonment and, in 2001, the Myanmar Tourism Promotion Board issued an order for local officials to protect tourists and limit “unnecessary contact” between foreigners and ordinary Burmese people.^[300]
【参考译文】政府从私营旅游服务业中获得了相当大比例的收入。[297]缅甸最受欢迎的旅游目的地包括仰光、曼德勒等大城市；孟邦、宾德亚、勃固和帕安等地的宗教场所；茵莱湖、景栋、葡萄、彬乌伦等地的自然步道；蒲甘和莫宁吴等古城；以及纳布勒、恩加帕利、恩格桑和墨吉等地的海滩。[298][299]然而，缅甸的大部分地区都禁止游客进入，外国人与缅甸人之间的交往，特别是在边境地区，都受到警方的严密监视。他们不得与外国人讨论政治，否则将面临监禁的处罚。2001年，缅甸旅游推广局发布命令，要求地方官员保护游客，并限制外国人与普通缅甸人之间的“不必要的接触”。[300]

The most common way for travellers to enter the country is by air.^[301] According to the website Lonely Planet, getting into Myanmar is problematic: “No bus or train service connects Myanmar with another country, nor can you travel by car or motorcycle across the border – you must walk across.” They further state that “It is not possible for foreigners to go to/from Myanmar by sea or river.”^[301] There are a few border crossings that allow the passage of private vehicles, such as the border between Ruili (China) to Mu-se, the border between Htee Kee (Myanmar) and Phu Nam Ron (Thailand)—the most direct border between Dawei and Kanchanaburi, and the border between Myawaddy and Mae Sot, Thailand. At least one tourist company has successfully run commercial overland routes through these borders since 2013.^[302]
【参考译文】旅行者进入缅甸最常见的方式是乘飞机。[301] 据《孤独星球》网站称，进入缅甸很成问题：“缅甸没有公共汽车或火车服务连接其他国家，你也不能乘汽车或摩托车过境——你必须步行。” 他们进一步指出，“外国人不可能通过海路或河道往返缅甸。”[301] 有几处边境口岸允许私人车辆通行，例如瑞丽（中国）与木瑟之间的边境、Htee Kee（缅甸）与 Phu Nam Ron（泰国）之间的边境——土瓦和北碧府之间最直接的边境，以及妙瓦底和泰国湄索之间的边境。自 2013 年以来，至少有一家旅游公司成功开通了穿越这些边境的商业陆路路线。[302]

Flights are available from most countries, though direct flights are limited to mainly Thai and other ASEAN airlines. According to Eleven magazine, “In the past, there were only 15 international airlines and increasing numbers of airlines have begun launching direct flights from Japan, Qatar, Taiwan, South Korea, Germany and Singapore.”^[303]
【参考译文】大多数国家都有航班，但直飞航班仅限于泰国和其他东盟航空公司。据《Eleven》杂志报道，“过去，只有 15 家国际航空公司，越来越多的航空公司开始从日本、卡塔尔、台湾、韩国、德国和新加坡开通直飞航班。”[303]

6. 人口统计 | Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Myanmar【主条目：缅甸的人口统计】

主条目：缅甸人口和缅甸民族

The provisional results of the 2014 Myanmar Census showed that the total population was 51,419,420.^[306] This figure includes an estimated 1,206,353 persons in parts of northern Rakhine State, Kachin State and Kayin State who were not counted.^[307] People who were out of the country at the time of the census are not included in these figures. There are over 600,000 registered migrant workers from Myanmar in Thailand, and millions more work illegally. Burmese citizens account for 80% of all migrant workers in Thailand.^[308] At the beginning of the 20th century, Burma’s population was approximately 10 million.^[309] The national population density is 76 per square kilometre (200/sq mi), among the lowest in Southeast Asia.
【参考译文】2014年缅甸人口普查的临时结果显示，缅甸总人口为51,419,420人。[306]这一数字包括北若开邦、克钦邦和克耶邦部分地区估计有1,206,353人未进行统计。[307]这些数字不包括人口普查时不在国内的人员。在泰国，有超过60万名注册的缅甸移民工人，还有数百万人非法工作。缅甸公民占泰国所有移民工人的80%。[308]20世纪初，缅甸的人口约为1000万。[309]缅甸的人口密度为每平方公里76人（每平方英里200人），是东南亚人口密度最低的国家之一。

Myanmar’s fertility rate in 2011 was 2.23, slightly above the replacement level^[310] and low compared to Southeast Asian countries of similar economic standing.^[310] There has been a significant decline in fertility in the 2000s, from a rate of 4.7 children per woman in 1983, down to 2.4 in 2001, despite the absence of any national population policy.^{[310][311][312]} The fertility rate is much lower in urban areas.
【参考译文】2011年，缅甸的生育率为2.23，略高于更替水平[310]，但与经济水平相似的东南亚国家相比，生育率较低。[310]尽管没有国家人口政策，但自2000年以来，缅甸的生育率大幅下降，从1983年的每名妇女生育4.7个孩子下降到2001年的2.4个孩子。[310][311][312]城市地区的生育率要低得多。

The relatively rapid decline in fertility is attributed to several factors, including extreme delays in marriage (almost unparalleled among developing countries in the region), the prevalence of illegal abortions, and the high proportion of single, unmarried women of reproductive age, with 25.9% of women aged 30–34 and 33.1% of men and women aged 25–34 being single.^[312][313]
【参考译文】生育率相对较快下降的原因有几个，包括结婚时间极度推迟（该地区的发展中国家几乎无与伦比）、非法堕胎盛行，以及育龄未婚单身女性比例高（30-34 岁女性中单身比例为 25.9%，25-34 岁男女中单身比例为 33.1%）。[312][313]

These patterns stem from economic dynamics, including high income inequality, which results in residents of reproductive age opting for delay of marriage and family-building in favour of attempting to find employment and establish some form of wealth;^[312] the average age of marriage in Myanmar is 27.5 for men, 26.4 for women.^[312][313]
【参考译文】这些模式源于经济动态，包括严重的收入不平等，导致育龄居民选择推迟结婚和建立家庭，转而尝试寻找工作并积累某种形式的财富；[312] 缅甸男性的平均结婚年龄为 27.5 岁，女性为 26.4 岁。[312][313]

6.2 最大的城市 | Largest cities

Further information: List of cities and largest towns in Myanmar【更多信息：缅甸城市和最大城镇列表】

主条目：缅甸城市列表

6.3 族群 | Ethnic groups

Main article: List of ethnic groups in Myanmar【主条目：缅甸的族群】

Myanmar is ethnically diverse. The government recognises 135 distinct ethnic groups. There are at least 108 different ethnolinguistic groups in Myanmar, consisting mainly of distinct Tibeto-Burman peoples, but with sizeable populations of Tai–Kadai, Hmong–Mien, and Austroasiatic (Mon–Khmer) peoples.^[314]
【参考译文】缅甸是一个多民族国家。政府承认有135个不同的民族。缅甸至少有108个不同的民族语言群体，主要由不同的藏缅语族组成，但泰-卡岱语族、苗瑶语族和南亚语系（孟-高棉语族）的人口也相当多。[314]

The Bamar form an estimated 68% of the population.^{[315][irrelevant citation]} 10% of the population are Shan.^[315] The Kayin make up 7% of the population.^[315] The Rakhine people constitute 4% of the population. Overseas Chinese form approximately 3% of the population.^[315][316] Myanmar’s ethnic minority groups prefer the term “ethnic nationality” over “ethnic minority” as the term “minority” furthers their sense of insecurity in the face of what is often described as “Burmanisation”—the proliferation and domination of the dominant Bamar culture over minority cultures.
【参考译文】缅甸人约占人口的68%。[315][无关引用]10%的人口是掸族。[315]克伦族占人口的7%。[315]若开族占人口的4%。海外华人约占人口的3%。[315][316]缅甸的少数民族群体更喜欢使用“族籍”一词而不是“少数民族”，因为“少数民族”一词加剧了他们在面对经常被描述的“缅化”——缅族文化对少数民族文化的扩散和支配——时的不安全感。

Mon, who form 2% of the population, are ethno-linguistically related to the Khmer.^[315] Overseas Indians are 2%.^[315] The remainder are Kachin, Chin, Rohingya, Anglo-Indians, Gurkha, Nepali and other ethnic minorities. Included in this group are the Anglo-Burmese. Once forming a large and influential community, the Anglo-Burmese left the country in steady streams from 1958 onwards, principally to Australia and the United Kingdom. It is estimated that 52,000 Anglo-Burmese remain in Myanmar. As of 2009, 110,000 Burmese refugees were living in refugee camps in Thailand.^[317]
【参考译文】孟族占人口的2%，在民族语言上与高棉族有关。[315]海外印度人占2%。[315]其余为克钦族、钦族、罗兴亚族、英印混血、廓尔喀人、尼泊尔人和其他少数民族。这一群体还包括英缅混血。英缅混血人曾是一个庞大且有影响力的人群，但从1958年开始，他们不断离开缅甸，主要前往澳大利亚和英国。据估计，缅甸仍有52,000名英缅混血人。截至2009年，有110,000名缅甸难民生活在泰国的难民营中。[317]

Refugee camps exist along Indian, Bangladeshi and Thai borders while several thousand are in Malaysia. Conservative estimates state that there are over 295,800 minority refugees from Myanmar, with the majority being Rohingya, Karen, and Karenni are principally located along the Thai-Myanmar border.^[318] There are nine permanent refugee camps along the Thai-Myanmar border, most of which were established in the mid-1980s. The refugee camps are under the care of the Thai-Burma Border Consortium (TBBC). Since 2006,^[319] over 55,000 Burmese refugees have been resettled in the United States.^[320]
【参考译文】在印度、孟加拉国和泰国边境地区设有难民营，而马来西亚也有数千名难民。据保守估计，缅甸有295,800多名少数民族难民，其中大多数为罗兴亚族、克伦族和克伦尼族，主要位于泰国与缅甸边境地区。[318]在泰缅边境有九个常设难民营，其中大部分是在20世纪80年代中期建立的。这些难民营由泰缅边境联盟（TBBC）负责照管。自2006年以来，[319]已有55,000多名缅甸难民在美国重新安置。[320]

The persecution of Burmese Indians, Burmese Chinese and other ethnic groups after the military coup headed by General Ne Win in 1962 led to the expulsion or emigration of 300,000 people.^[321] They migrated to escape racial discrimination and the wholesale nationalisation of private enterprise that took place in 1964.^[322] The Anglo-Burmese at this time either fled the country or changed their names and blended in with the broader Burmese society.
【参考译文】1962年奈温将军领导的军事政变后，对缅甸印度人、缅甸华人和其他种族的迫害，导致30万人被驱逐或移民。[321]他们移民是为了逃避种族歧视和1964年发生的对私营企业的全面国有化。[322]当时，英缅混血人要么逃离缅甸，要么改名换姓，融入更广泛的缅甸社会。

Many Rohingya Muslims have fled Myanmar. Many refugees headed to neighbouring Bangladesh, including 200,000 in 1978 as a result of the King Dragon operation in Arakan.^[323] 250,000 more left in 1991.^[324]
【参考译文】许多罗兴亚穆斯林逃离了缅甸。许多难民前往邻国孟加拉国，包括1978年阿拉干国王龙行动后的20万人。[323]1991年，又有25万人离开。[324]

6.3+1 语言 | Languages

Main article: Languages of Myanmar【主条目：缅甸的语言】

官方语言为缅甸语（缅族的母语），缅甸境内各个少数民族都使用自身的语言。汉语除了在缅甸华人内部外，在缅甸北部少数民族地区也较为通用。许多社会上层人士懂英语。 由于缅甸军政府长期以大缅族主义为主体，所以在其他原住民地区强行禁止在学校说母语。引发了其他族群的不满。也导致了其母语的逐渐没落。 缅甸虽然曾是大英帝国的殖民地，但是缅甸由于教育设施落后，国内不通行英语，成了前殖民地中的异数。

Myanmar is home to four major language families: Sino-Tibetan, Tai–Kadai, Austroasiatic, and Indo-European.^[325] Sino-Tibetan languages are most widely spoken. They include Burmese, Karen, Kachin, Chin, and Chinese (mainly Hokkien). The primary Tai–Kadai language is Shan. Mon, Palaung, and Wa are the major Austroasiatic languages spoken in Myanmar. The two major Indo-European languages are Pali, the liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism, and English.^[326] More than a hundred languages are spoken in total. Since many of them are known only within small tribes around the country, they may have been lost (many if not all) after a few generations.
【参考译文】缅甸有四大语系：汉藏语系、泰-卡岱语系、南亚语系和印欧语系。[325]汉藏语系使用最为广泛，包括缅甸语、克伦语、克钦语、钦语和汉语（主要是闽南语）。泰-卡岱语系的主要语言是掸语。孟语、掸邦语和佤语是缅甸主要的南亚语系语言。印欧语系的两种主要语言是巴利语（南传佛教的礼仪语言）和英语。[326]缅甸总共使用超过一百种语言。由于其中许多语言仅在全国各地的小部落中使用，因此可能在几代之后就消失了（如果不是全部的话）。

Burmese, the mother tongue of the Bamar and official language of Myanmar, is related to Tibetan and Chinese.^[326] It is written in a script consisting of circular and semi-circular letters, which were adapted from the Mon script, which in turn was developed from a southern Indian script in the 5th century. The earliest known inscriptions in the Burmese script date from the 11th century. It is also used to write Pali, the sacred language of Theravada Buddhism, as well as several ethnic minority languages, including Shan, several Karen dialects, and Kayah (Karenni), with the addition of specialised characters and diacritics for each language.^[327]
【参考译文】缅甸语是缅族人的母语和缅甸的官方语言，与藏语和汉语有关。[326]缅甸语采用由圆形和半圆形字母组成的文字书写，这些字母源自孟文，而孟文又源自5世纪的印度南部文字。缅甸语文字中已知的最早铭文可以追溯到11世纪。缅甸语也被用来书写巴利语（南传佛教的圣语）以及几种少数民族语言，包括掸语、几种克伦方言和克耶语（克伦尼语），并为每种语言添加了专门的字符和变音符。[327]

6.5 宗教 | Religion

Main article: Religion in Myanmar / 主条目：缅甸宗教

Many religions are practised in Myanmar. Religious edifices and orders have been in existence for many years. The Christian and Muslim populations do, however, face religious persecution and it is hard, if not impossible, for non-Buddhists to join the army or get government jobs, the main route to success in the country.^[328] Such persecution and targeting of civilians is particularly notable in eastern Myanmar, where over 3,000 villages have been destroyed in the past ten years.^{[329][330][331]} More than 200,000 Muslims have fled to Bangladesh by 2007 to escape persecution.^[332][333]
【参考译文】缅甸实行多种宗教。宗教建筑和教派已经存在多年。然而，基督教和穆斯林人口稠密地区确实面临宗教迫害，非佛教徒很难甚至无法参军或获得政府工作，而政府工作是在缅甸获得（个人）成功的主要途径。[328]这种对平民的迫害和袭击在缅甸东部尤为明显，过去十年中，该地区有3,000多个村庄被摧毁。[329][330][331]截至2007年，已有超过20万名穆斯林为逃避迫害逃往孟加拉国。[332][333]

佛教在缅甸占主导地位，基督宗教在缅甸北部少数民族地区（含东南克伦族）较为流行，昔日受到缅甸中央政府的较大限制，近年随着缅甸民主改革，这些佛教以外的宗教传播及信仰者也得到了保障。但是伊斯兰教在缅甸仍受到当地政府和主流佛教社会的极端严厉的压迫，特别是信仰伊斯兰教的缅甸罗兴亚人在缅甸没有公民权利，亦没有任何人权可言。

A large majority of the population practices Buddhism; estimates range from 80%^[334] to 89%.^[335][336] According to 2014 Myanmar Census, 87.9% of the population identifies as Buddhists.^[337] Theravāda Buddhism is the most widespread.^[335] There are some 500,000 Buddhist monks and 75,000 nuns in this country of 54 million.^[338] Other religions are practised largely without obstruction, with the notable exception of some religious minorities such as the Rohingya people, who have continued to have their citizenship status denied and treated as illegal immigrants instead,^[242] and Christians in Chin State.^[339]
【参考译文】绝大多数人口信奉佛教；估计范围从80%[334]到89%。[335][336]根据2014年缅甸人口普查，87.9%的人口自称佛教徒。[337]上座部佛教是最普遍的。[335]在这个拥有5400万人口的国家中，约有50万佛教僧侣和75,000名尼姑。[338]其他宗教在很大程度上可以自由信奉，但值得注意的是，一些宗教少数群体，如罗兴亚人，他们的公民身份一直被拒绝，并被当作非法移民对待，[242]以及钦邦的基督徒。[339]

According to 2014 census, 6.2% of the population identifies as Christian; 4.3% as Muslim; 0.8% as followers of tribal religions; 0.5% as Hindus; 0.2% as followers of other religions; and 0.1% follow no religion.^[337] According to the 2010 estimates of the Pew Research Center, 7% of the population is Christian; 4% is Muslim; 1% follows traditional animistic beliefs; and 2% follow other religions, including Mahayana Buddhism, Hinduism, and East Asian religions.^[340][341] Jehovah’s Witnesses have been present since 1914^[342] and have about 80 congregations around the country and a branch office in Yangon publishing in 16 languages.^[343] A tiny Jewish community in Yangon had a synagogue but no resident rabbi.^[344]
【参考译文】根据2014年的人口普查，6.2%的人口信奉基督教；4.3%信奉伊斯兰教；0.8%信奉部落宗教；0.5%信奉印度教；0.2%信奉其他宗教；0.1%无宗教信仰。[337]根据皮尤研究中心2010年的估计，7%的人口信奉基督教；4%信奉伊斯兰教；1%信奉传统的万物有灵论；2%信奉其他宗教，包括大乘佛教、印度教和东亚宗教。[340][341]自1914年以来，耶和华见证人一直在缅甸活动[342]，在全国有约80个会众，并在仰光设有分支机构，用16种语言出版。[343]仰光的一个小型犹太社区有一座犹太教堂，但没有常驻拉比。[344]

Although Hinduism is practised by 0.5% of the population, it was a major religion in Myanmar’s past.^[345][346] Burmese folk religion is practised by many Bamars alongside Buddhism.
【参考译文】尽管只有 0.5% 的人口信奉印度教，但它在缅甸历史上是一个主要宗教。[345][346] 除了佛教之外，许多缅族人还信奉缅甸民间宗教。

6.6 卫生健康 | Health

Main article: Health in Myanmar【主条目：缅甸的健康】

The general state of health care in Myanmar is poor. The government spends anywhere from 0.5% to 3% of the country’s GDP on health care, consistently ranking among the lowest in the world.^[347][348] Although health care is nominally free, in reality, patients have to pay for medicine and treatment, even in public clinics and hospitals. Public hospitals lack many of the basic facilities and equipment. The 2010 maternal mortality rate per 100,000 births for Myanmar is 240. This is compared with 219.3 in 2008 and 662 in 1990. The under 5 mortality rate, per 1,000 births is 73 and the neonatal mortality as a percentage of under 5’s mortality is 47. According to Doctors without Borders, 25,000 Burmese AIDS patients died in 2007, deaths that could largely have been prevented by antiretroviral therapy drugs and proper treatment.^[349]
【参考译文】缅甸的医疗卫生状况普遍较差。政府将国内生产总值（GDP）的0.5%至3%用于医疗卫生，这一比例一直位居世界最低之列。[347][348]虽然名义上医疗卫生是免费的，但实际上，即使在公立诊所和医院，病人也需要支付药品和治疗费用。公立医院缺乏许多基本设施和设备。缅甸2010年的孕产妇死亡率为每10万例活产240例。相比之下，2008年为219.3例，1990年为662例。5岁以下儿童死亡率为每1000例活产73例，新生儿死亡率占5岁以下儿童死亡率的47%。根据无国界医生组织的数据，2007年缅甸有25,000名艾滋病患者死亡，这些死亡在很大程度上本可以通过抗逆转录病毒疗法药物和适当治疗来避免。[349]

HIV/AIDS, recognised as a disease of concern by the Myanmar Ministry of Health, is most prevalent among sex workers and intravenous drug users. In 2005, the estimated adult HIV prevalence rate in Myanmar was 1.3% (200,000–570,000 people), according to UNAIDS, and early indicators of any progress against the HIV epidemic are inconsistent.^{[350][351][352]} However, the National AIDS Programme Myanmar found that 32% of sex workers and 43% of intravenous drug users in Myanmar have HIV.^[352]
【参考译文】缅甸卫生部将艾滋病毒/艾滋病列为值得关注的疾病，这种疾病在性工作者和静脉注射毒品使用者中最为常见。根据联合国艾滋病规划署的数据，2005 年缅甸成人艾滋病毒感染率估计为 1.3%（20 万至 57 万人），而抗击艾滋病毒流行的早期进展指标并不一致。[350][351][352] 然而，缅甸国家艾滋病计划发现缅甸 32% 的性工作者和 43% 的静脉注射毒品使用者感染了艾滋病毒。[352]

6.7 教育 | Education

Main article: Education in Myanmar【主条目：缅甸的教育】

According to the UNESCO Institute of Statistics, Myanmar’s official literacy rate as of 2000 was 90%.^[353] Historically, Myanmar has had high literacy rates. The educational system of Myanmar is operated by the government agency, the Ministry of Education. The education system is based on the United Kingdom’s system after nearly a century of British and Christian presences in Myanmar. Nearly all schools are government-operated, but there has been an increase in privately funded English language schools in the early 21st century. Schooling is compulsory until the end of elementary school, approximately 9 years old, while the compulsory schooling age is 15 or 16 at international level.
【参考译文】根据联合国教科文组织统计研究所的数据，截至2000年，缅甸的官方识字率为90%。[353]历史上，缅甸的识字率一直很高。缅甸的教育体系由政府机构教育部运营。经过近一个世纪英国和基督教在缅甸的存在，缅甸的教育体系以英国的教育体系为基础。几乎所有学校都是政府运营的，但在21世纪初，私立英语学校的数量有所增加。小学毕业前是义务教育，大约到9岁，而国际上的义务教育年龄是15岁或16岁。

There are 101 universities, 12 institutes, 9 degree colleges and 24 colleges in Myanmar, a total of 146 higher education institutions.^[354] There are 10 technical training schools, 23 nursing training schools, 1 sport academy and 20 midwifery schools. There are four international schools acknowledged by WASC and College Board—The International School Yangon, Myanmar International School, Yangon International School, and International School of Myanmar in Yangon. Myanmar was ranked 127th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021.
【参考译文】缅甸有101所大学、12所学院、9所学位学院和24所学院，高等教育机构总数为146所。[354]有10所技术培训学校、23所护士培训学校、1所体育学院和20所助产学校。有四所被西部院校联盟（WASC）和大学理事会认可的国际学校，分别是仰光国际学校、缅甸国际学校、仰光国际学校和仰光缅甸国际学校。2021年，缅甸在全球创新指数中排名第127位。

6.8 犯罪 | Crime

Further information: Crime in Myanmar【更多信息另见：缅甸的犯罪】

Myanmar had a murder rate of 15.2 per 100,000 population with a total of 8,044 murders in 2012.^[355] Factors influencing Myanmar’s high murder rate include communal violence and armed conflict.^[356] Myanmar is one of the world’s most corrupt nations. The 2012 Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index ranked the country at number 171, out of 176 countries in total.^[357] Myanmar is the world’s second largest producer of opium after Afghanistan, producing some 25% of the world’s opium, and forms part of the Golden Triangle. The opium industry was a monopoly during colonial times and has since been illegally operated by corrupt officials in the Burmese military and rebel fighters,^[358] primarily as the basis for heroin manufacture. Myanmar is the largest producer of methamphetamines in the world, with the majority of Ya ba found in Thailand produced in Myanmar, particularly in the Golden Triangle and northeastern Shan State, which borders Thailand, Laos and China.^[359] Burmese-produced ya ba is typically trafficked to Thailand via Laos, before being transported through the northeastern Thai region of Isan.^[360]
【参考译文】缅甸的谋杀率为每十万人 15.2 人，2012 年共发生 8,044 起谋杀案。[355] 造成缅甸高谋杀率的因素包括社区暴力和武装冲突。[356] 缅甸是世界上最腐败的国家之一。2012 年透明国际腐败指数将该国排在 176 个国家中的第 171 位。[357] 缅甸是仅次于阿富汗的世界第二大鸦片生产国，生产了世界上约 25% 的鸦片，是金三角的一部分。鸦片产业在殖民时期处于垄断地位，此后一直由缅甸军队中的腐败官员和叛军非法经营，[358] 主要用作制造海洛因的基础。缅甸是世界上最大的甲基苯丙胺生产国，泰国发现的大多数雅巴都产自缅甸，尤其是与泰国、老挝和中国接壤的金三角和掸邦东北部。[359] 缅甸生产的雅巴通常经老挝贩运到泰国，然后再通过泰国东北部的伊桑地区运输。[360]

7. 文化 | Culture

Main article: Culture of Myanmar / 主条目：缅甸文化

缅甸语文属汉藏语系下的藏缅语族缅语支；居民以农耕为生；古文化在宗教、文学和政治制度等方面，深受印度文化影响。以蒲甘王朝为代表，建于十一世纪初，以蒲甘为首都。设行政组织，订立法律，雕刻及绘画艺术相当发达；并以自创的缅甸文取代巴利文和梵文，成为经书的正式文字。佛塔建筑以“纠苏吉刚佛塔”为其代表。

A diverse range of indigenous cultures exist in Myanmar, with majority culture primarily Buddhist and Bamar. Bamar culture has been influenced by the cultures of neighbouring countries, manifested in its language, cuisine, music, dance and theatre. The arts, particularly literature, have historically been influenced by the local form of Theravada Buddhism. Considered the national epic of Myanmar, the Yama Zatdaw, an adaptation of India’s Ramayana, has been influenced greatly by Thai, Mon, and Indian versions of the play.^[361] Buddhism is practised along with nat worship, which involves elaborate rituals to propitiate one from a pantheon of 37 nats.^[362][363]
【参考译文】缅甸存在着多种多样的土著文化，其中大多数文化主要是佛教和缅文化。缅文化受到邻国文化的影响，这种影响体现在其语言、美食、音乐、舞蹈和戏剧中。艺术，特别是文学，历来受到当地小乘佛教形式的影响。被认为是缅甸民族史诗的《雅玛扎特道》是印度《罗摩衍那》的改编本，深受泰国、孟族和印度版本的影响。[361]缅甸人信奉佛教，同时也崇拜自然神，包括举行复杂的仪式来安抚37位自然神中的一位。[362][363]

In a traditional village, the monastery is the centre of cultural life. Monks are venerated and supported by the lay people. A novitiation ceremony called shinbyu is the most important coming of age events for a boy, during which he enters the monastery for a short time.^[364] All male children in Buddhist families are encouraged to be a novice (beginner for Buddhism) before the age of twenty and to be a monk after the age of twenty. Girls have ear-piercing ceremonies (နားသ) at the same time.^[364] Burmese culture is most evident in villages where local festivals are held throughout the year, the most important being the pagoda festival.^[365][366] Many villages have a guardian nat, and superstition and taboos are commonplace.
【参考译文】在传统的村庄里，寺院是文化生活的中心。僧侣受到俗人的尊敬和支持。对于男孩来说，入寺修行仪式（shinbyu）是最重要的成年礼，在仪式期间，他将在寺院修行一段时间。[364]所有佛教家庭的男孩在二十岁之前都要做见习僧（佛教初学者），二十岁之后成为僧人。与此同时，女孩也会举行穿耳仪式（နားသ）。[364]缅甸文化在村庄中体现得最为明显，因为那里会全年举办地方节日，其中最重要的是佛塔节。[365][366]许多村庄都有自己的守护神，迷信和禁忌都很普遍。

British colonial rule introduced Western elements of culture to Myanmar. Myanmar’s education system is modelled after that of the United Kingdom. Colonial architectural influences are most evident in major cities such as Yangon.^[367] Many ethnic minorities, particularly the Karen in the southeast and the Kachin and Chin who populate the north and northeast, practice Christianity.^[368] According to The World Factbook, the Burman population is 68% and the ethnic groups constitute 32%. In contrast, the exiled leaders and organisations claim the country is 40% ethnic.
【参考译文】英国殖民统治将西方文化元素引入缅甸。缅甸的教育体系以英国为蓝本。殖民建筑的影响在仰光等主要城市最为明显。[367]许多少数民族，特别是东南部的克伦族以及北部和东北部的克钦族和钦族，信仰基督教。[368]根据《世界概况》，缅甸人口中，缅甸族占68%，其他民族占32%。相比之下，流亡的领导人和组织声称缅甸有40%的人口是其他民族。

7.1 饮食 | Cuisine

Main article: Burmese cuisine / 主条目：缅甸饮食

缅甸盛产稻米，人民以大米为主食。早餐常吃鱼汤面、椰子面、椰子粥、凉拌面、凉拌米粉及用糯米、椰子、白糖做的各种各样的糕点小吃。

缅甸人有喝早茶的习惯。人们在茶馆里喝奶茶，吃肉包子、油条及油饼，还喜欢喝鱼片汤、鸭肉粥等。

缅甸人在饮食方面较为节俭。常以鱼虾酱、辣椒、煮豆、酸菜叶汤佐饭。缅甸菜肴讲究油、辣、香、鲜、酸、咸。烹调方法多以炸、烤、炒、凉拌为主。炸烤食物易于保存，凉拌不需加热，又能祛暑。缅甸濒海多河，鱼虾丰富，易捕捞。在缅甸以鱼虾为原料制作的食品尤多。缅甸人喜欢将竹笋腌成酸笋，和其他蔬菜、肉类混炒，味道鲜美。

Burmese cuisine is characterised by extensive use of fish products such as fish sauce, ngapi (fermented seafood) and dried prawn. Mohinga is the traditional breakfast dish and is Myanmar’s national dish. Seafood is a common ingredient in coastal cities, while meat and poultry are more commonly used in landlocked cities like Mandalay. Freshwater fish and shrimp have been incorporated into inland cooking as a primary source of protein and are used in a variety of ways, fresh, salted whole or filleted, salted and dried, made into a salty paste, or fermented sour and pressed. Burmese cuisine also includes a variety of salads (a thoke), centred on one major ingredient, ranging from starches like rice, wheat and rice noodles, glass noodles and vermicelli, to potato, ginger, tomato, kaffir lime, long bean, and lahpet (pickled tea leaves).
【参考译文】缅甸菜的特点是大量使用鱼制品，如鱼露、恩加皮（发酵海鲜）和干虾。莫因加是缅甸的传统早餐，也是缅甸的国菜。在沿海城市，海鲜是常见的食材，而在像曼德勒这样的内陆城市，肉类和家禽则更为常见。淡水鱼和虾已经成为内陆烹饪的主要蛋白质来源，并且以多种方式使用，包括新鲜的、腌制完整的或鱼片、腌制和干燥的、制成咸酱的，或发酵酸化和压榨的。缅甸菜还包括各种沙拉（称为“托克”），这些沙拉以一种主要食材为中心，从淀粉类如大米、小麦和米粉、玻璃面和细粉丝，到土豆、生姜、西红柿、青柠、长豆和拉赫培特（腌茶叶）不等。

7.2 体育运动 | Sport

See also: Traditional games of Myanmar【另请参阅：缅甸传统游戏】

The Lethwei, Bando, Banshay, and Pongyi thaing martial arts and chinlone are traditional sports in Myanmar.^[369] Football is played all over the country, even in villages, and its national team is ruled by the Myanmar Football Federation. The 2013 Southeast Asian Games took place in Naypyidaw, Yangon, Mandalay and Ngwesaung Beach in December representing the third occasion that the event has been staged in Myanmar. Myanmar previously hosted the games in 1961 and 1969.^[370]
【参考译文】另见：缅甸传统体育项目有：缅甸拳、班多拳、班谢拳和蓬吉拳。缅甸武术和钦龙拳都是传统运动。[369] 足球运动遍布全国，甚至在村庄里也流行起来，缅甸国家队由缅甸足球联合会管理。2013 年东南亚运动会于 12 月在内比都、仰光、曼德勒和威桑海滩举行，这是该项赛事第三次在缅甸举办。缅甸曾在 1961 年和 1969 年举办过该项运动。[370]缅甸

7.3 美术 | Art

Main articles: Art of Myanmar and Myanmar architecture【主要文章：缅甸美术和缅甸建筑】

Burmese traditional art concepts are popular and respected by the Burmese people and people from abroad. Burmese contemporary art has developed quite rapidly on its own terms. Artists born after the 1980s have had greater chances of art practice outside the country.
【参考译文】缅甸传统艺术观念深受缅甸国内及海外人士的喜爱与推崇，缅甸当代艺术也发展得相当迅速，80年代后出生的艺术家在海外艺术实践的机会也增多。

One of the first to study western art was Ba Nyan. Together with Ngwe Gaing and a handful of other artists, they were the pioneers of western painting style. Later on most young children learned the concepts from them. Some well known contemporary artists are Lun Gywe, Aung Kyaw Htet, MPP Yei Myint, Myint Swe, Min Wai Aung, Aung Myint, Kin Maung Yin, Po Po and Zaw Zaw Aung.
【参考译文】最早学习西方艺术的人之一是 Ba Nyan。他们与 Ngwe Gaing 和其他几位艺术家一起，是西方绘画风格的先驱。后来，大多数小孩子都从他们那里学到了这些概念。一些著名的当代艺术家是 Lun Gywe、Aung Kyaw Htet、MPP Yei Myint、Myint Swe、Min Wai Aung、Aung Myint、Kin Maung Yin、Po Po 和 Zaw Zaw Aung。

7.4 媒体和通信 | Media and communications

Main article: Media of Myanmar【主条目：缅甸的媒体】

Because of Myanmar’s political climate, there are not many media companies in relation to the country’s population. Some are privately owned. All programming must meet with the approval of the censorship board. The Burmese government announced on 20 August 2012 that it would stop censoring media before publication. Following the announcement, newspapers and other outlets no longer required approved by state censors; however, journalists in the country can still face consequences for what they write and say.^[371] In April 2013, international media reports were published to relay the enactment of the media liberalisation reforms that we announced in August 2012. For the first time in numerous decades, the publication of privately owned newspapers commenced in the country.^[372]
【参考译文】由于缅甸的政治环境，相对于其人口而言，缅甸的媒体公司并不多。其中一些是私有的。所有节目都必须获得审查委员会的批准。缅甸政府于2012年8月20日宣布，将在出版前停止对媒体进行审查。宣布之后，报纸和其他媒体机构不再需要国家审查机构的批准；然而，缅甸的记者仍然可能因他们的笔触和言论而面临后果。[371]2013年4月，国际媒体报道了我们在2012年8月宣布的媒体自由化改革的实施情况。数十年来，缅甸首次开始出版私人报纸。[372]

7.4.1 互联网 | Internet

Main article: Internet in Myanmar【主条目：缅甸的互联网】

Internet use is estimated to be relatively low compared to other countries.^[373][374] Myanmar’s internet used to be subject to censorship, and authorities viewed e-mails and posts on Internet blogs until 2012 when the government removed media censorship. During the strict censorship days, activity at internet cafes was regulated, and one blogger named Zarganar was sentenced to prison for publishing a video of destruction caused by Cyclone Nargis in 2008; Zarganar was released in October 2011.
【参考译文】据估计，缅甸的互联网使用率相对较低，与其他国家相比。[373][374]缅甸的互联网曾受到审查，当局一直查看电子邮件和互联网博客上的帖子，直到2012年政府取消媒体审查。在严格审查期间，对网吧活动进行了监管，一名名叫扎尔加纳（Zarganar）的博主因在2008年发布了一段纳吉斯飓风造成的破坏视频而被判处监禁；扎尔加纳于2011年10月获释。

In regards to communications infrastructure, Myanmar is the last ranked Asian country in the World Economic Forum’s Networked Readiness Index (NRI) – an indicator for determining the development level of a country’s information and communication technologies. With 139 countries reported on, Myanmar ranked number 133 overall in the 2016 NRI ranking.^[375]
【参考译文】就通信基础设施而言，缅甸在世界经济论坛的网络就绪指数（NRI）中位列亚洲国家最后一名——该指数是衡量一个国家信息和通信技术发展水平的指标。据报告的139个国家中，缅甸在2016年NRI排名中位列第133位。[375]

7.5 电影 | Film

Main article: Cinema of Myanmar【主条目：缅甸电影】

Myanmar’s first film was a documentary of the funeral of Tun Shein—a leading politician of the 1910s, who campaigned for Burmese independence in London. The first Burmese silent film Myitta Ne Thuya (Love and Liquor) in 1920 which proved a major success, despite its poor quality. During the 1920s and 1930s, many Burmese-owned film companies made and produced several films. The first Burmese sound film was produced in 1932 in Bombay, India with the title Ngwe Pay Lo Ma Ya (Money Can’t Buy It). After World War II, Burmese cinema continued to address political themes. Many of the films produced in the early Cold War era had a strong propaganda element.
【参考译文】缅甸的第一部电影是关于20世纪10年代的一位著名政治家吞信（Tun Shein）葬礼的纪录片，他曾在伦敦为缅甸独立运动奔走。1920年，缅甸第一部无声电影《米达内托亚》（Myitta Ne Thuya，爱情与烈酒）上映，尽管质量不高，但取得了巨大成功。20世纪20年代和30年代，许多缅甸电影公司制作并出品了多部电影。缅甸第一部有声电影于1932年在印度孟买制作完成，片名为《钱买不到》（Ngwe Pay Lo Ma Ya）。二战后，缅甸电影继续涉及政治主题。许多在冷战早期制作的电影都带有强烈的宣传色彩。

In the era that followed the political events of 1988, the film industry has been increasingly controlled by the government. Film stars who had been involved in the political activities were banned from appearing in films. The government issues strict rules on censorship and largely determines who produces films, as well as who gets academy awards.^[376]
【参考译文】在1988年政治事件之后的时代，电影业越来越受到政府的控制。参与政治活动的电影明星被禁止出现在电影中。政府制定了严格的审查制度，并在很大程度上决定了谁制作电影以及谁获得学院奖。[376]

Over the years, the movie industry has also shifted to producing many lower-budget direct-to-video films. Most of the movies produced nowadays are comedies.^[377] In 2008, only 12 films worthy of being considered for an Academy Award were made, although at least 800 VCDs were produced.^[378] Myanmar is the primary subject of a 2007 graphic novel titled Chroniques Birmanes by Québécois author and animator, Guy Delisle. The graphic novel was translated into English under the title Burma Chronicles in 2008. In 2009, a documentary about Burmese videojournalists called Burma VJ was released.^[379] This film was nominated for Best Documentary Feature at the 2010 Academy Awards.^[380] The Lady had its world premiere on 12 September 2011 at the 36th Toronto International Film Festival.^[381]
【参考译文】多年来，电影业也转向制作许多低成本直接发行到视频的电影。如今制作的大多数电影都是喜剧。[377]2008年，虽然制作了至少800张VCD，但只有12部电影被认为值得获得奥斯卡奖。[378]缅甸是魁北克作家兼动画师盖伊·德利斯勒（Guy Delisle）于2007年创作的漫画小说《缅甸编年史》（Chroniques Birmanes）的主要主题。该漫画小说于2008年被翻译成英文，名为《缅甸编年史》（Burma Chronicles）。2009年，一部关于缅甸视频记者的纪录片《缅甸VJ》（Burma VJ）上映。[379]这部电影被提名为2010年奥斯卡最佳纪录片。[380]《昂山素季》（The Lady）于2011年9月12日在第36届多伦多国际电影节上全球首映。[381]

7.6 文学

主条目：缅甸文学

缅甸文学有始于蒲甘碑铭的说法，蒲甘时期著名的碑铭有《妙齐提碑》（《亚扎古曼碑》）等。

有一千年历史的缅甸文学，其内容主要是诗歌。这是因为缅甸语言的独特性，使它的韵律感很强。这对诗歌的创作很有帮助。此外，由于受到佛教文化影响，民众普遍倾向说实话而不是创作一个虚构的故事，所以，缅甸文学在过去的小说类型题材相对较少。

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