歼-20 / Chengdu J-20 -（全文）中英文维基百科词条融合

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0. 概况

辽观注：此标题是我们在搬运、整合过程中添加的。

歼-20（缩写：J-20；代号威龙^[15][16][17]）是由成都飞机工业集团生产，装备中国人民解放军空军的第五代战斗机，采用双发、鸭式气动布局、隐身的设计^[2][3][4]，由成都飞机设计研究所的杨伟担任总设计师。

The Chengdu J-20 (Chinese: 歼-20; pinyin: Jiān-Èrlíng), also known as Mighty Dragon (Chinese: 威龙; pinyin: Wēilóng,^[8][9][10] NATO reporting name: Fagin),^[11] is a twin-engine all-weather stealth^[12] fighter developed by China‘s Chengdu Aerospace Corporation for the People’s Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF).^[5] The J-20 is designed as an air superiority fighter with precision strike capability.^[13] The aircraft has three notable variants: the initial production model, the revised airframe variant with new engines and thrust-vectoring control, and the aircraft-teaming capable twin-seat variant.
【参考译文】成都J-20（中文：歼-20；拼音：Jiān-Èrlíng），也被称为威龙（拼音：Wēilóng，[8][9][10] 北约代号：Fagin）[11]，是由中国成都航空工业集团公司为中国人民解放军空军（PLAAF）研制的一款双发全天候隐形[12]战斗机。[5]J-20被设计为具有精确打击能力的制空战斗机。[13]该机型有三种显著的型号：初期生产型、采用新发动机和推力矢量控制的改进机体型，以及具备协同作战能力的双座型。

Descending from the J-XX program of the 1990s,^[14] the aircraft made its maiden flight on 11 January 2011,^[1][2] and was officially revealed at the 2016 China International Aviation & Aerospace Exhibition.^[15] The aircraft entered service in March 2017^[5] with the first J-20 combat unit formed in February 2018,^[5] making China the second country in the world and the first in Asia to field an operational stealth aircraft.^[16]
【参考译文】该机型源自20世纪90年代的J-XX计划，[14]并于2011年1月11日进行了首飞，[1][2]在2016年中国国际航空航天展览会上正式亮相。[15]2017年3月，该机型正式服役，[5]第一支J-20战斗机部队于2018年2月组建，[5]从而使中国成为世界上第二个、亚洲第一个拥有实战部署隐形战斗机的国家。[16]

歼-20在2016年11月的第十一届中国国际航空航天博览会上首度公开并进行双机飞行展示。^[18]2017年7月30日，3架歼-20在庆祝中国人民解放军建军90周年阅兵上首次以战斗姿态公开。^[19]

歼-20是继美国F-22和F-35之后世界上第三款进入量产并服役的第五代隐身战斗机^[20]。也是世界上首款将会拥有双座型的第五代隐身战斗机。^[21]

概观
类型	第五代隐身制空战斗机[1][2][3][4]
代号	威龙
乘员	1人或2人
首飞	2011年1月11日12点50分[5][6][7]
服役	2016年12月12日[8]
设计	成都飞机设计研究所 （611所）
生产	成都飞机工业集团
产量	外界估算超过200架（截至2022年10月）[9][10]
单位造价	1.1亿美元（2018年）[11]
现况	服役中
主要用户	中国人民解放军空军
衍生机型	歼-20S、歼-20A
技术数据
长度	21.2米（70英尺）[12]
翼展	13.01米（42.7英尺）[12]
高度	4.69米（15.4英尺）[12]
翼面积	73平方米（790平方英尺）
空重	17,000千克（37,000英磅）[13]
负载重量	11,000千克（24,000英磅）[13]
正常起飞重量	25,000千克（55,000英磅）[13]
最大起飞重量	37,000千克（82,000英磅）[13]
发动机	AL-31FM2×2（原型机） 涡扇-10C×2（过渡型） 涡扇-15×2（测试中）
推力	最大军用推力：86.3kN/89.17kN/105kN 最大后燃推力：142kN/147kN/156kN
性能数据
最大速度	2126公里/小时（2.0马赫）[12][a]
巡航速度	≥1600公里/小时（1.5马赫）
实用升限	20,000米（66,000英尺）
最大航程	5,500千米（3,400英里）[13]
作战半径	2,000千米（1,200英里）[14]
翼负荷	353千克/平方米
最大过载	− 3 G / > 9 G 武器装备
导弹	霹雳-10近距空空导弹 霹雳-12中距空空导弹 霹雳-15远距空空导弹 霹雳-21远距空空多脉冲导弹
炸弹	雷石-6精确制导炸弹
其他	红外曳光箔条干扰弹

1. 发展历程 | Development

1.1 立项研制

The J-20 emerged from the late-1990s J-XX program. In 2008, the PLAAF endorsed Chengdu Aerospace Corporation‘s proposal, Project 718. Chengdu had previously used the double-canard configuration in the J-9, its first design and cancelled in the 1970s, and the J-10.^[17][18]
【参考译文】J-20源自20世纪90年代末的J-XX计划。2008年，中国人民解放军空军（PLAAF）批准了成都航空工业集团公司的718项目提案。在此之前，成都曾在J-9（其首款设计，于20世纪70年代被取消）和J-10上使用过鸭式布局。[17][18]

歼-20于2007年作为重点型号工程立项进入研制阶段。中国军方与机关支持有能力的单位承担研制子系统、分系统级机载设备，研制过程采取多家竞争方式，以降低项目风险。^[22]2009年11月，中国人民解放军空军副司令何为荣中将预期歼-20投入服役的时间节点为2017年。研发经费则估计超过44亿美元^[23]。

1.2 各机型首飞

In 2009, a senior PLAAF official revealed that the first flight was expected in 2010–11, with a service entry date by 2019.^[19] On 22 December 2010, the first J-20 prototype underwent high speed taxiing tests outside the Chengdu Aircraft Design Institute (CADI).^[6][20] Three months later, the first J-20 prototype made its maiden flight in Chengdu.^[1][2] The first prototype was painted with the number “2001”. In May 2012, the second prototype took flight in the CADI facility.^[21][22]
【参考译文】2009年，一位中国人民解放军空军高级官员透露，首飞预计将在2010至2011年间进行，服役日期不晚于2019年。[19]2010年12月22日，首架J-20原型机在成都飞机设计研究所（CADI）外进行了高速滑行测试。[6][20]三个月后，首架J-20原型机在成都成功首飞。[1][2]首架原型机的编号为“2001”。2012年5月，第二架原型机在成都飞机设计研究所的设施内进行了飞行。[21][22]

第零批次第一架歼-20验证机原定于2011年1月7日首次试飞，但由于当天天气不理想，遂改于2011年1月11日12时50分由歼-10S型战机陪同下进行首飞^[24][25]。首飞过程歼-20完成数次通场。该次试飞于当日13时05分顺利结束，全程允许市民外围观看，成功降落时场内外人员欢呼一片。歼-20的首飞引起国内外媒体热议^[26][27][28]。首飞后相关人员进行庆功仪式，参与者包括歼20首飞员梁万俊，歼10首飞员雷强，歼20战斗机总设计师杨伟，解放军总装备部副部长李安东上将等。^[29]歼-20首飞时恰逢美国国防部长罗伯特·盖茨访华，故其首飞被外界解读为中国向美国展示实力^[30]。但首飞当天晚上中华人民共和国国防部外事办公室副主任关友飞即表示，决定试飞时间是一种正常的工作安排，不针对任何国家或事件。^[31]

2012年5月12日，编号为2001的歼-20验证机飞赴阎良试飞中心进行试飞。数日后，编号为2002的歼-20验证机首飞成功，这是第二架被曝光的歼-20验证机。^[32]2002号验证机也于2012年11月转场阎良，2013年1月返回成都。^[33]此时，歼-20的试飞已经由基本飞行转向复杂机动飞行，以测试验证该机的机动能力。2013年4月初，2002号验证机侧弹仓挂载解放军新一代近距空对空导弹霹雳-10曝光，这是歼-20战机首次携带武器出现。^[34][35]2013年7月初，2002号验证机主弹仓挂载两枚某新型远距空对空导弹的照片曝光。^[36]

2013年7月6日，编号为2002的歼-20验证机再次转场阎良试飞中心，开始定型试飞。^[37]2002号验证机为首批次第四架，其于试飞中心更换编号为2004。^[38]而同在阎良的2001号验证机则更换了新型涂装进行隐身方面的测试。^[39]

2013年底，编号为2011的第一批次第一架歼-20原型机的照片在网络上曝光。歼-20的首架原型机与之前的验证机相比，在涂装、座舱、起落架舱盖、内置武器舱舱盖、进气道、鸭翼、边条、主翼、尾撑、垂尾及发动机短舱等方面都作出了重大改进，机头下方新配备了光电跟踪系统。^[40]中国全国政协委员、空军指挥学院副院长朱和平少将介绍称，2011号歼-20战机为提高发动机性能、战斗力和隐形能力做了多项改进，并有可能继续修改。^[41]

Analysts noted new equipment and devices for multi-role operations, such as integrated targeting pods for precision-guided munition, and six additional passive infrared sensors can also be spotted around the aircraft.^[24][25][26]
【参考译文】分析人士注意到，该机型配备了执行多任务所需的新设备和装置，例如用于精确制导弹药的集成目标吊舱，并且在该机型周围还可以看到六个额外的被动红外传感器。[24][25][26]

2014年3月1日，2011号歼-20原型机成功首飞。首飞全程由一架歼-10S伴飞并通场4次。^[42]2014年6月17日，2011号歼-20原型机飞赴阎良试飞中心。

2014年7月26日，2012号歼-20原型机成功首飞。10月17日，2012号歼-20原型机飞赴阎良试飞中心。^[43]

2014年11月29日，2013号歼-20原型机成功首飞。从该机开始，歼-20移除了机头空速管。^[44]

2014年12月19日，2015号歼-20原型机成功首飞。为进一步降阻减重，该机尾撑处略有改动。^[45]

2015年9月18日，2016号歼-20原型机成功首飞。该机采用了新型弹射座椅，利用透波材料对进气道鼓包、主翼前边条翼及腹鳍等处进行了重新设计，并延长了发动机舱以增强尾部红外隐身性能。^[46]

2015年11月24日，2017号歼-20原型机成功首飞。该机对座舱盖进行修型且使用了新型镀膜以减弱座舱空腔结构对雷达的散射。^[47]

2015年底，编号为2101的首架量产型歼-20下线并开始地面测试。^[48]

In December 2015, the low rate initial production (LRIP) version of the J-20 was spotted by military observers.^[27][28] The LRIP aircraft revealed dielectric surfaces that were previously painted for prototypes, potentially containing various sensors or baked-in radar absorbing materials.^[27]
【参考译文】2015年12月，军事观察员发现了J-20的低速率初始生产（LRIP）版本。[27][28]LRIP飞机露出了之前为原型机涂装的介电表面，其中可能装有各种传感器或内置雷达吸波材料。[27]

2016年1月18日，编号为2101的歼-20量产机成功首飞。

2016年11月1日，歼20在广东珠海举行的第十一届中国国际航空航天博览会首次公开亮相。在1日10:21左右在珠海上空，量产型歼-20两机编队进行了低空通场、爬升、横滚、盘旋转弯等常规飞行动作展示^[49]。^[50]

2017年9月某日，一架新生产歼20照片显示（2021）^[51]，其搭载一款全新国产发动机但尚未公布型号，或为搭载低可探测性喷管的涡扇-10IPE，后燃推力为155kN级别。

2021年10月末，社交媒体上出现了歼20双座型在成飞公司试飞机场滑行的图片，消息人士称，此型飞机可能将在11月11日，即解放军空军72周年纪念日前后首飞。^[21]

1.3 交付与服役

2016年12月12日，首批6架歼-20量产机（机尾编号78271-78276）被发现出现于沧州场站^[52][53]。另外还有6架未刷号等待交付^[54]。

2017年3月9日，央视首次证实歼-20已经服役中国人民解放军空军。^[55]

2017年7月30日，3机密集编队的歼-20机群作为歼击机梯队的头阵参加了庆祝中国人民解放军建军90周年阅兵。

In October 2017, Chinese state media reported that the designs of the J-20 had been finalized, and were ready for mass production as well as being combat-ready.^[29] In March 2018, Chinese military revealed other versions of the J-20 platform were being developed.^[30]
【参考译文】2017年10月，中国官方媒体报道称，J-20的设计已经最终确定，并准备好进行批量生产以及投入战斗。[29] 2018年3月，中国军方透露了正在开发J-20平台的其他版本。[30]

2018年2月9日，歼-20列装空军作战部队^[56]。

2018年8月3日，人民日报在当年的八一推出的微视频《军人一分钟》中罕见披露了一个数据，歼-20可在1分钟内战斗巡航52公里，这个数据或暗示歼-20的最高飞行速度为每小时3120公里^[57]。

2018年11月6日，第十二届珠海航展正式开幕，届时歼-20将于6日，9日，10日，11日分别进行四场飞行表演，每场表演时间约为15分钟，此次航展参演将由三架涂有低可视度迷彩涂装的量产歼-20战斗机承担。

In January 2019, Chinese media reported that a twin-seat variant of the J-20 is rumored to be in development for use in tactical bombing, electronic warfare and carrier strike roles.^[31]
【参考译文】2019年1月，中国媒体报道称，据传J-20正在开发一种双座型变体，用于执行战术轰炸、电子战和航母打击等任务。[31]

In November 2019, a J-20 painted in yellow primer coating was spotted during its flight testing by defense observers at the Chengdu Aerospace Corporation manufacturing facility. The aircraft is equipped with a new variant of WS-10 Taihang engines with serrated afterburner nozzles to enhance stealth.^[32][33] Report indicated Chengdu Aerospace Corporation terminated the manufacturing of J-20 with Russian engines in mid-2019.^[34]
【参考译文】2019年11月，国防观察者在成都航空工业集团公司制造工厂目击了一架涂有黄色底漆的J-20在进行飞行测试。该飞机配备了新型WS-10太行发动机，其加力燃烧室喷嘴呈锯齿状，以增强隐形能力。[32][33]有报道称，成都航空工业集团公司于2019年中终止了使用俄罗斯发动机的J-20的生产。[34]

Chinese media reported that a new variant of the J-20 was unveiled on July 8, 2020, and entered mass production the same day. The only change mentioned was that the new J-20 was to be equipped with thrust vectoring control.^[35] Conflicting reports emerged regarding the exact engine type. Analyst Andreas Rupprecht expressed skepticism regarding the use of Russian engines on the J-20, as he believes that the J-20 is using a variant of the WS-10, which he called the WS-10C. This engine has improved thrust, stealthier serrated afterburner nozzles, and higher reliability, but it is not designed for thrust vectoring, unlike the WS-10 TVC demonstrated on a J-10 in 2018 China International Aviation & Aerospace Exhibition.^[36] Analyst Jamie Hunter believed the new engine type is what he called WS-10B-3, a Chinese-made thrust-vectoring engine demonstrated on the 2018 Zhuhai Airshow.^[34]
【参考译文】中国媒体报道称，2020年7月8日，J-20的新型号正式亮相，并于同日进入批量生产。唯一提到的变化是新型J-20将配备推力矢量控制。[35]关于发动机型号的确切信息出现了相互矛盾的报道。分析师安德烈亚斯·鲁普雷希特对J-20使用俄罗斯发动机表示怀疑，因为他认为J-20使用的是WS-10的改进型，他称之为WS-10C。该发动机推力增强，采用了更隐蔽的锯齿状加力燃烧室喷嘴，可靠性更高，但与2018年中国国际航空航天展览会上J-10所展示的WS-10 TVC不同，它并非为推力矢量控制而设计。[36]分析师杰米·亨特认为，新型发动机是他所说的WS-10B-3，这是2018年珠海航展上展示的一款中国制造推力矢量发动机。[34]

In January 2021, South China Morning Post reported that the J-20 would replace its engines with the WS-10C.^[37][38] The WS-10C is considered an interim solution before Shenyang WS-15 passes evaluations. Moreover, WS-10C will not be equipped with the thrust-vectoring version of the J-20 that entered mass production in 2019, which still required further testing. Overall, Chinese engineers believe WS-10C is comparable with AL-31F in performance,^[39][40] and the replacement would also reduce China’s dependency on Russian engines.^[40] The WS-10C-powered J-20 has officially showcased to the public on 28 September 2021 at Zhuhai Airshow.^[39][41][42]
【参考译文】2021年1月，《南华早报》报道称，J-20将换装WS-10C发动机。[37][38]WS-10C被视为沈阳WS-15发动机通过评估之前的临时解决方案。此外，WS-10C不会配备2019年进入批量生产的推力矢量控制型J-20，因为该型号仍需要进一步测试。总的来说，中国工程师认为WS-10C的性能可与AL-31F相媲美，[39][40]并且此次换装还将减少中国对俄罗斯发动机的依赖。[40]2021年9月28日，在珠海航展上，装备WS-10C发动机的J-20已正式公开展示。[39][41][42]

2021年国庆前后，有称歼20已大量入列的新闻，但详细数量不明^[58]，由于歼20过去曾出现产能瓶颈^[59]，故还有一些时评质疑歼20的数量会非常低，推估被认为就是30多架左右^[60]，随后也有报导称，《南华早报》透露中国已经在四个空军飞行团中部署了大约150架歼-20，另一方面，有些分析认为当前的数量不管如何，需要很快被未来产能爬坡追上^[61]，由于成飞的与发动机国产化进度已经快完成，面对F-35的大量装备，长期目标最好要达到一年48架以上^[62]。

The development of a twin-seater variant was hinted at by J-20’s chief designer in 2019.^[43] In January 2021, Aviation Industry Corporation of China released computer renderings of the twin-seat variant of the J-20 fighter in celebration of the 10th anniversary of the jet’s maiden flight.^[44] In February 2021, a South China Morning Post infographic depicted a twin-seat J-20 variant powered by thrust vectoring WS-10C.^[45] In October 2021, a taxiing prototype, dubbed J-20S by analysts,^[46][47] was spotted near Chengdu Aerospace Corporation facilities, making J-20S the first-ever two-seat stealth fighter.^[48][49] The twin-seat design allows the possibility for the second operator to coordinate attacks and reconnaissance missions from other friendly aircraft via networking or unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAVs) linked via “loyal wingman” systems and sensors. The advantage of a second operator includes the potential for better interpreting and exploiting the enormous sensory data that could overload the limited cognitive and processing capacity for a single human, especially in a contested air combat environment.^[47][50]
【参考译文】2019年，J-20的总设计师曾暗示过双座型变体正在研发中。[43]2021年1月，中国航空工业集团有限公司为庆祝J-20战斗机首飞10周年，发布了其双座型变体的计算机渲染图。[44]2021年2月，《南华早报》的图表新闻描绘了一款配备推力矢量WS-10C发动机的双座型J-20变体。[45]2021年10月，分析人士称，一款名为J-20S的滑行原型机在成都航空工业集团公司设施附近被发现，[46][47]这使得J-20S成为首款双座隐形战斗机。[48][49]双座设计使得第二名飞行员可以通过联网或与“忠诚僚机”系统和传感器相连的无人机（UCAV）协调对其他友机的攻击和侦察任务。第二名飞行员的优势包括有可能更好地解读和利用庞大的传感数据，这些数据可能会使一个人的认知和处理能力达到极限，尤其是在有争议的空战环境中。[47][50]

2022年1月份，歼20开始执行战斗值班^[63]。

In March 2022, Chinese state media reported that the J-20, reportedly with one engine replaced by the WS-15,^[51] had performed flight trials.^[52]
【参考译文】2022年3月，中国官方媒体报道称，据报道已有一台发动机被WS-15替换的J-20已完成飞行试验。[52]

2022年8月26日，歼20参加长春航展^[64]。

2022年11月8日，歼20以4机编队参加第十四届珠海航展，并有两机降落进行了地面静态展示^[65]。另外根据航展上展示的歼20机上的编号，预计截至2022年11月，共服役了约150–208架歼20^[66]

In December 2022, Chinese military analysts indicated the WS-15 was undertaking the last stage of testing and development.^[53] In late December, a prototype of the new J-20 variant was observed at Chengdu Aerospace Corporation facilities. The new variant was painted in yellow primer and different from previous J-20 aircraft in airframe design, with a low-profile blended canopy, aiming to optimize transonic flight performance and maneuverability. The new prototype was speculated to be used to test the WS-15 engine and thrust-vectoring.^[54][55] In March 2023, the executive of Aero Engine Corporation of China (AECC) announced the serial production of the WS-15 has started.^[56][57] FlightGlobal speculated that small-scale production and in-flight testing with the J-20 fighter was underway.^[58] On 29 June 2023, a J-20 fighter in yellow primer was observed taking off from Chengdu Aircraft Cooperation airfield fitted with reportedly two WS-15 engines.^[51][59] Clear photo of WS-15 equipped J-20A fighter taking flight appeared in 2024.^[60]
【参考译文】2022年12月，中国军事分析人士指出，WS-15正处于测试和开发的最后阶段。[53]12月底，人们在成都航空工业集团公司设施内观察到一款新型J-20变体的原型机。这款新变体涂有黄色底漆，机体设计与之前的J-20飞机不同，拥有低矮的流线型座舱盖，旨在优化跨音速飞行性能和机动性。人们推测，这款新原型机将用于测试WS-15发动机和推力矢量控制。[54][55]2023年3月，中国航空发动机集团有限公司（AECC）负责人宣布，WS-15已开始批量生产。[56][57]FlightGlobal推测，WS-15正在与J-20战斗机进行小规模生产和飞行测试。[58]2023年6月29日，人们观察到一架涂有黄色底漆的J-20战斗机从成都飞机工业（集团）公司机场起飞，据称该战斗机配备了两台WS-15发动机。[51][59]2024年，出现了WS-15装备的J-20A战斗机飞行的清晰照片。[60]

In October 2023, the Pentagon reported that PLAAF was upgrading the J-20, with enhancements such as extended weapon-carrying capability, thrust vectoring nozzles, control systems for unmanned aircraft teaming, and WS-15 high-thrust engines.^[61]
【参考译文】2023年10月，五角大楼报告称，中国空军正在升级J-20，改进内容包括增强武器携带能力、配备推力矢量喷嘴、增加无人机编队控制系统，以及使用WS-15高推力发动机。[61]

In November 2024, the Aviation Industry Corporation of China (AVIC) officially announced the twin-seat variant of the J-20, designated the J-20S. Functions of the variant include long-range operations with multi-role capabilities, including air superiority, precision strikes, manned-unmanned teaming, battlefield surveillance, electronic warfare, and command and control.^[62]
【参考译文】2024年11月，中国航空工业集团有限公司（AVIC）正式宣布J-20的双座变体，命名为J-20S。该变体的功能包括远程多任务作战能力，如夺取空中优势、精确打击、有人/无人协同作战、战场监视、电子战以及指挥与控制。[62]

2. 设计 | Design

歼-20采用全动鸭翼及垂尾和DSI涵道，拥有多种低可侦测性设计：大致呈五边形的机头及机身横截面、切尖外倾斜双垂尾、带锯齿边空中受油管收纳舱、弹舱及起落架舱舱门、镀膜整体座舱盖^[67]、隐形特种涂料^[68]等，此皆隐形战机主要特征。歼-20验证机复合材料用量达27%，^[69]原型机钛用量达20%、复合材料用量达29%，^[70]相比中国第四代重型战斗机歼-11B分别仅为15%和9%的水平有较大提高。^[71]此外，歼-20采用了国际先进的液态感温技术、气动伺服控制技术取代铂电阻感温技术、电机作动技术，并采用部件原位检测技术。^[22]

2.1 特征 | Characteristics

The J-20 has a long and blended fuselage, with a chiseled nose section and a frameless canopy. Immediately behind the cockpit are low-observable diverterless supersonic inlet (DSI) intakes. All-moving canard surfaces with pronounced dihedral are placed behind the intakes, followed by leading edge extensions (LERX) merging into the delta wing with forward-swept trailing edges. The aft section has twin outward canted all-moving fins, short but deep ventral strakes, and conventional or low-observable^[13] engine exhausts.^[63][64]
【参考译文】歼-20（J-20）拥有修长且流畅的机身，机头部分雕刻精细，并采用了无框座舱盖。驾驶舱后方紧接着是低可探测性的无附面层隔板超音速进气道（DSI）。进气道后方是装有明显二面角的全动鸭翼，随后是前缘扩展（LERX），它们与带有前掠式后缘的三角翼相融合。机尾部分配有向外倾斜的全动尾鳍、短而深的腹鳍，以及常规或低可探测性的发动机排气装置。[63][64]

One important design criterion for the J-20 is high instability.^[65][66] This requires sustained pitch authority at a high angle of attack, in which a conventional tail-plane would lose effectiveness due to stalling. On the other hand, a canard can deflect opposite to the angle of attack, avoiding stall and thereby maintaining control.^[67] A canard design is also known to provide good supersonic performance, excellent supersonic and transonic turn performance, and improved short-field landing performance compared to the conventional delta-wing design.^[68][69]
【参考译文】歼-20的一个重要设计标准是高度不稳定性。[65][66]这需要在高攻角下保持持续的俯仰控制力，而在这种条件下，传统尾翼会因失速而失效。另一方面，鸭翼可以朝与攻角相反的方向偏转，从而避免失速，保持控制。[67]与传统的三角翼设计相比，鸭翼设计在超音速性能、超音速和跨音速转弯性能以及短距起降性能方面表现更佳。[68][69]

Leading edge extensions and body lift are incorporated to enhance performance in a canard layout. This combination is said by the designer to generate 1.2 times the lift of an ordinary canard delta, and 1.8 times more lift than an equivalent-sized pure delta configuration. The designer claims such a combination allows the use of a smaller wing, reducing supersonic drag without compromising transonic lift-to-drag characteristics that are crucial to the aircraft’s turn performance.^[65][66][70]
【参考译文】为了提升鸭翼布局的性能，歼-20融入了前缘扩展和机体升力技术。设计者表示，这种组合可产生比普通鸭式三角翼1.2倍的升力，是同等大小纯三角翼配置的1.8倍。设计者声称，这种组合使得可以使用更小的机翼，从而在不牺牲对转弯性能至关重要的跨音速升阻比特性的情况下，减少超音速阻力。[65][66][70]

The use of a bubble canopy, extensive flight-control surfaces, and canard configuration for angle-of-attack control indicates J-20’s intention to operate in air-superiority missions and within-visual-range engagements. Chief test pilot Li Gang describes the J-20 as having comparable manoeuvrability to the Chengdu J-10 while being significantly better at low-observable (LO) performance. The J-20 is a multirole air superiority fighter, with the interceptor role being just one of the options.^[13]
【参考译文】歼-20采用气泡式座舱盖、广泛的飞行控制面和鸭翼配置来控制攻角，这表明其旨在执行空中优势任务和近距离交战任务。首席试飞员李刚表示，歼-20的机动性与成都歼-10相当，但低可探测性（LO）性能显著更优。歼-20是一款多用途空中优势战斗机，拦截任务只是其功能选项之一。[13]

2.2 航电 | Avionics

The J-20 avionics aim to obtain situational awareness through advanced sensor and data fusion while denying situational awareness to the adversary through stealth and electronic warfare. The J-20 features an integrated avionic suite consisting of multi-spectral sensors capable of providing omnidirectional coverage with.^[13][71] Official information on the type of radar that J-20s use has not yet been released publicly. Some analysts believed that J-20s used Type 1475 (KLJ-5) active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar with 1856 transmit/receive modules,^[72] but more recent information revealed that this radar was designed for upgraded versions of the J-11D.^[73] Other analysts point out that, based on the nose cross-section of the J-20 and known data about a single transmit/receive module surface in the J-16’s AESA radar system, J-20s likely contain 2000–2200 transmit/receive modules.^[74] A Chinese study commissioned by the military suggested the J-20’s AESA radar would have a tracking range of 200 km (120 mi; 110 nmi) with simultaneous tracking for 20 targets, and multi-target engagement capabilities.^[71]
【参考译文】歼-20的航电系统旨在通过先进的传感器和数据融合技术获取态势感知，同时通过隐身和电子战手段剥夺对手的态势感知能力。歼-20配备了一套综合航电系统，包括能够提供全方位覆盖的多光谱传感器。[13][71]关于歼-20使用的雷达类型，官方尚未公开相关信息。一些分析人士认为，歼-20采用了拥有1856个发射/接收模块的1475型（KLJ-5）有源相控阵（AESA）雷达，[72]但最近的信息显示，该雷达是为歼-11D的升级版设计的。[73]其他分析人士指出，根据歼-20的机头横截面和歼-16 AESA雷达系统中单个发射/接收模块表面的已知数据，歼-20很可能包含2000-2200个发射/接收模块。[74]中国军方委托进行的一项研究表明，歼-20的AESA雷达将具有200公里（120英里；110海里）的跟踪范围，能够同时跟踪20个目标，并具备多目标交战能力。[71]

The nose includes electro-optical sensors for an omnidirectional view, including a chin-mounted enclosed electro-optical sensor with a forward field-of-view for air-to-air applications.^[75] In 2015, Beijing A-Star Science and Technology was developing passive sensors, the EOTS-89 electro-optical targeting system and the EORD-31 infrared search and track, for the J-20. The passive sensors enhance the capability to engage stealthy aircraft.^[76] The J-20’s usage of electro-optical sensors resembles the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II‘s avionic suite, including the AN/AAQ-37 Distributed Aperture System.^[75][12]
【参考译文】机头配备了用于全方位视野的电光传感器，包括一个下巴安装的封闭式电光传感器，具有向前视野，用于空对空作战。[75]2015年，北京A-Star科技正在为歼-20开发被动传感器，包括EOTS-89电光瞄准系统和EORD-31红外搜索与跟踪系统。这些被动传感器增强了对抗隐身飞机的能力。[76]歼-20使用电光传感器的方式与洛克希德·马丁公司的F-35“闪电II”战斗机的航电系统相似，包括AN/AAQ-37分布式孔径系统。[75][12]

According to Chinese media in February 2024, the J-20 is equipped to perform airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) operations.^[77]
【参考译文】据中国媒体2024年2月报道，歼-20已具备执行空中预警与指挥控制（AEW&C）任务的能力。[77]

2.3 驾驶舱

The aircraft features a fully-digital glass cockpit with one primary large color liquid-crystal display (LCD) touchscreen, three smaller auxiliary displays, and a wide-angle holographic heads-up display (HUD).^[78][79][80] The size of the primary LCD screen is 610 mm × 230 mm (24 in × 9 in), 650 mm (25.63 in) diagonal size, with two illumination systems for operational redundancy.^[81] The aircraft is fitted with a helmet-mounted display (HMD) system, which displays combat information inside the pilots’ helmet visor and facilities firing missiles at high off-boresight angle.^[82][83]
【参考译文】该飞机采用全数字式玻璃座舱，配备一个主要的大尺寸彩色液晶显示屏（LCD）触摸屏、三个较小的辅助显示屏和一个广角全息平视显示器（HUD）。[78][79][80]主LCD屏幕的尺寸为610毫米×230毫米（24英寸×9英寸），对角线尺寸为650毫米（25.63英寸），配备两个照明系统以实现操作冗余。[81]飞机还配备了头盔显示器（HMD）系统，该系统可在飞行员头盔护目镜内显示作战信息，并可在大离轴角下发射导弹。[82][83]

同时是中国首型装备整体座舱盖的战机。该整体座舱透明件研制重大攻关于2010年开始，研制团队提出“渐次悬拉＋真空辅助”工艺实现整体座舱透明件成形、镶嵌式过渡边缘连接、柔性吸附定位高精度孔位加工以及复杂曲面均匀膜系镀制等系列技术，使中国成为继美国之后第二个具备研制该类透明件技术能力的国家。歼-20使用的新一代大屏幕综合显示系统大小为24*9英寸（长61厘米，宽23厘米，相当于对角线25英寸显示器），是全球战斗机中尺寸最大、分辨率最高、重量最轻、集成度最优的显示系统。中国歼-20使用基于FPGA技术的双链路DVI信号设计，显示其最高分辨率已经达到2560*1600。歼-20的显示系统还使用了一种图形生成的硬件加速设计方法。歼-20显示系统将每个像素数据置上标记信息后写入SDRAM帧存，FPGA作为协处理器根据像素数据的标记类型进行相应的数据运算处理，以此减轻DSP的运算负担，提高图形生成效率。多模式交互显示技术、触敏控制技术、语音交互控制技术、三维立体显示技术、OLED柔性显示技术、3D显示技术等多项关键技术已经在歼-20战机上得到应用。^[92]

2.4 隐身设计 | Stealth

2016年11月歼-20在珠海航展亮相，11月2日央视专题节目宣称其隐身涂料具有高吸收雷达波性能，对比美国隐形战机使用隐形涂料具有优势^[72]，同时航电雷达系统受惠于较晚研发所以较高水准，相比F-22于九十年代末设计只能采用当时的电子科技去设计和量产可以改装的地方更多，11月中旬央视专题节目还称目前发动机为过渡型号，最终将有新的发动机研制完成换装，届时与F-22同等的超音速巡航能力是未来的目标。^[73]

Analysts noted that the J-20’s airframe employs a holistic approach to reduce its Radar cross-section (RCS), uniquely combining canard wings with leading edge root extensions (LERX).^[30][13] The chined forebody, modified radar radome, and electroconductive canopy^[13] use a stealth shaping, yielding signature performance in a mature design similar to the F-22.^[116] The diverterless supersonic inlets (DSI) leading into serpentine inlets (S-ducts) can obscure the reflective surface of the engine from radar detection. DSI intakes save weight, reduce complexity, and minimize radar signature. Additional low-observable features include a flat fuselage bottom holding an internal weapons bay, sawtooth edges on compartment doors, mesh coverings on cooling ports at the base of the vertical tails, embedded antennas, and radar-absorbent coating materials.^[13][117] While the aircraft’s fins/strakes and axisymmetric rear areas may expose the aircraft to radar, the overall stealth shaping of the J-20 is robust and considerably more capable than the Russian PAK-FA.^[63][118] Improvements regarding stealth were subsequently introduced – one prototype in 2014 was powered by WS-10 engines equipped with different jagged-edge nozzles and tiles for greater stealth.^[119] The J-20 production model with the serrated WS-10C engine is also capable of mitigating negative effects on rear-aspect stealth.^[120]
【参考译文】分析人士指出，歼-20的机体采用了整体方法来减少其雷达截面积（RCS），独特地将鸭翼与前缘根扩展（LERX）相结合。[30][13]其斜切的前机身、经过修改的雷达整流罩和电导座舱盖[13]采用了隐身设计，在成熟的设计中呈现出类似于F-22的典型性能。[116]无调节器超音速进气道（DSI）通往蜿蜒进气道（S形进气道），可以遮蔽发动机反射面，使其不易被雷达探测到。DSI进气道减轻了重量，降低了复杂性，并最小化了雷达特征。其他低可探测性特征包括装有内部武器舱的平坦机身底部、隔舱门上的锯齿边缘、垂直尾翼底部冷却口的网状覆盖物、嵌入式天线以及雷达吸波涂层材料。[13][117]虽然飞机的鸭翼和轴对称后部区域可能会使飞机暴露在雷达之下，但歼-20的整体隐身设计非常稳健，能力远强于俄罗斯的PAK-FA。[63][118]随后引入了关于隐身的改进——2014年的一架原型机配备了WS-10发动机，发动机装有不同形状的锯齿状喷管和瓦片，以提高隐身能力。[119]配备锯齿状WS-10C发动机的歼-20生产型飞机也能够减轻对后方隐身的不利影响。[120]

Others have raised doubts about the use of canards on a low-observable design, stating that canards would guarantee radar detection and compromise stealth.^[121][122] However, these critiques with respect to the canard’s RCS may be unfounded.^[13] Canards and low-observability are not necessarily mutually exclusive designs. Northrop Grumman’s proposal for the U.S. Navy’s Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) incorporated canards on a stealthy airframe.^[123][124] Lockheed Martin employed canards on a stealth airframe for the Joint Advanced Strike Technology (JAST) program during early development before dropping them due to complications with aircraft carrier recovery.^[125][126] McDonnell Douglas and NASA’s X-36 featured canards and was considered to be extremely stealthy.^[127] RCS can be further reduced by controlling canard deflection through flight-control software, as on the Eurofighter.^[128][129] Similarly, Chinese aerospace researchers also concluded that, in terms of stealth, the canard delta configuration is comparable with the conventional arrangement.^[130]
【参考译文】也有人对在低可探测性设计中使用鸭翼表示怀疑，认为鸭翼会保证被雷达探测到，从而损害隐身性能。[121][122]然而，这些关于鸭翼RCS的批评可能是没有根据的。[13]鸭翼和低可探测性并不一定是相互排斥的设计。诺斯罗普·格鲁曼公司为美国海军的先进战术战斗机（ATF）提出的方案就在一个隐身机体上结合了鸭翼。[123][124]洛克希德·马丁公司在联合先进打击技术（JAST）项目的早期开发阶段，也在一个隐身机体上使用了鸭翼，但由于与航母回收相关的复杂性而放弃了这一设计。[125][126]麦克唐纳·道格拉斯公司和美国宇航局的X-36也采用了鸭翼，并被认为是极其隐身的。[127]通过飞行控制软件控制鸭翼偏转可以进一步减小RCS，欧洲战斗机就是这样做的。[128][129]同样，中国航空航天研究人员也得出结论，就隐身而言，鸭式三角翼布局与传统布局相当。[130]

Composite materials are applied to minimize the J-20’s RCS.^[75] The DSI enables an aircraft to reach Mach 2.0 with a simpler intake than traditionally required, and improves stealth performance by eliminating radar reflections between the diverter and the aircraft’s skin. Analysts have also noted that the J-20 DSI reduces the need for the application of radar-absorbent materials.^[131][132] A removable radar reflectors (Luneburg lens) is mounted on the underside of the J-20 to amplify its radar returns, concealing the real radar signature.^[75] In the 2021 production model, the emitter is re-engineered to be retractable.^[133]
【参考译文】歼-20采用了复合材料来最大限度地减小其RCS。[75]DSI使飞机能够以比传统要求更简单的进气道达到2.0马赫的速度，并通过消除调节器和飞机蒙皮之间的雷达反射来改善隐身性能。分析人士还指出，歼-20的DSI减少了使用雷达吸波材料的需求。[131][132]歼-20的下方装有可拆卸的雷达反射器（伦伯格透镜），用于放大其雷达回波，从而掩盖真实的雷达特征。[75]在2021年的生产型中，发射器经过重新设计，可以伸缩。[133]

In May 2018, Indian Air Chief Marshal B.S. Dhanoa claimed at a press conference that the radars on India’s Su-30MKI fighters were “good enough” and could detect a J-20 from “several kilometers away” while answering a question on whether the J-20 posed a threat to India. However, experienced analysts didn’t take Dhanoa’s claim seriously due to his exaggeration and the lack of validity.^[134][135] Analyst Justin Bronk from Royal United Services Institute noted that Chinese were possibly flying the J-20 with radar reflectors during peacetime for safety and training purposes due to the potential for accidents and identification from other aircraft or ground installations.^[136] In a more recent report, Bronk also states that even with limited stealth, J-20 could hide and strike enemy critical platforms in an airspace with background clutter caused by non-stealth fighters and other electromagnetic noise.^[91]
【参考译文】2018年5月，印度空军参谋长B.S.达诺阿在一次新闻发布会上回答关于歼-20是否对印度构成威胁的问题时称，印度苏-30MKI战斗机的雷达“足够好”，可以在“几公里外”探测到歼-20。然而，经验丰富的分析人士并没有认真对待达诺阿的说法，认为他夸大其词，且缺乏有效性。[134][135]皇家联合军种研究所的分析师贾斯汀·布朗克指出，出于安全和训练目的，以及避免发生事故和便于其他飞机或地面设施识别的需要，中国可能在和平时期为歼-20配备了雷达反射器。[136]在最近的一份报告中，布朗克还指出，即使隐身能力有限，歼-20也能在由非隐身战斗机和其他电磁噪声造成的背景杂波空域中隐藏起来，打击敌方的关键平台。[91]

According to Aviation Week in 2021, the J-20’s stealth characteristics were superior to the Sukhoi Su-57 in the frontal aspect but inferior overall – particularly in the rear – to the F-35 .^[13] As the program matures with each batch, recently produced models have seen constant and significant enhancement in their stealth profile.^[137][138]
【参考译文】据《航空周刊》2021年报道，歼-20在前方方向的隐身特性优于苏-57，但总体上——特别是后部——不如F-35。[13]随着该项目每批次的成熟，最近生产的型号在隐身特性方面不断得到显著增强。[137][138]

2.5 气动布局

歼-20长约21.2米，翼展约13.01米^[12]，推测可提供较大的空间布置内置弹舱和油箱。由于较大的燃料有效载荷，故较适合远航。也由于其较大的机体，据推测应配合较大推力的发动机，或预备日后的升级空间。

歼-20在设计布局上，没有采用美国的F-22和俄国苏-57的常规布局，而是采用了双激涡流升力体边条鸭翼式气动布局，类似台风战斗机，此布局使飞机拥有较优秀的超音速配平能力，良好的高迎角升力特性，较高的瞬时盘旋角速度与滚转率，同时略微带动提升主翼的效能。但部分学者质疑鸭式布局会导致最大迎角与巡航持续迎角升阻比之间出现矛盾，而双激涡流可平衡这项缺陷。并且鸭翼偏转时产生强度较大的雷达回波，对飞机前向RCS影响比常规布局飞机大^[74][75]；然而也有论者对这种说法提出了反驳^[76][77][78]，并提及了美国洛克希德·马丁公司的先进战术战斗机在研究之中也包括了翼鸭式设计^[79][80]、X-36验证机在翼鸭式设计下都不影响隐身性能^[81]，也有论者指出同样具备翼鸭式设计的台风战斗机也能够借助飞行控制软件控制鸭翼偏转减小雷达散射截面。^[82][83]，这种反论似乎亦得到中国航天科研人员的赞同^[84]。

综合所述，该机大量采用复合材料^[85]、DSI涵道、外形具有较佳的低可探测设计^[86] ，但尾喷口的隐形处理不及F-22^[78]，所以有论者认为歼-20的隐身水平普遍优于苏-57^[76][77]，即使和F-22、F-35相比也不逊色^[87][88]。按其针对高速突入能力进行强化的思路，预计该机可能拥有反介入、夺取制空权的重点战术目的。^[89]根据2016年11月12日的官方报导，歼-20未来将装有与霹雳-10格斗短距导弹配合的头盔显示器，能实行越肩向侧向后攻击。^[90]2021年，新制造的歼-20弹仓密封条由过去的纯黑色，变的不明显了。腹部挂载的龙勃透镜形状也出现变化，体积较以往的减小，而且疑似可以收放。^[91]

2.6 发动机 | Engines

【中文词条原注b】某些资料也认为J-20可用涡扇-10C做有限度的超音速巡航^[98][99]

During the prototype and initial service period, the fighter was powered by an improved Lyulka-Saturn AL-31 variant, reportedly the AL-31FM2 developed by Salyut.^[98] The engine has a “special power setting” thrust of 145 kN (32,600 lbf).^[104][105]
【参考译文】在原型机和初期服役期间，该战斗机使用的是经过改进的留里卡-土星AL-31变型发动机，据报道是由礼炮公司开发的AL-31FM2。[98]该发动机的“特殊功率设定”推力为145千牛（32,600磅力）。[104][105]

最早，于2015年左右进行小批量试生产的歼20使用的是涡扇-10B^[93][94]。而2017年第一批歼-20部队装备的是俄制AL-31发动机，但两者的推力均不够，对重型的歼-20战机战力稍有缺憾，经自行研发多年，采用锯齿构型的涡扇-10C国产发动机推力比俄制发动机要大。涡扇-10C发动机采用全许可权数码控制（FADEC）技术，改进了加力燃烧室，最大推力可以达到130千牛以上，可以满足歼-20A的立项时制定的部分飞行指标^[102]。

The Shenyang WS-10C was selected as the replacement for AL-31 due to delays on the testing and production of the WS-15 engine.^[107] Aircraft powered by WS-10Cs were flying by September 2019.^[39] The engine has a thrust of 142-147 kN,^[34][39] a thrust-to-weight ratio of 9.5,^[102] providing necessary propulsion for J-20 to supercruise, and is fitted with serrated afterburner nozzles for enhanced rear-aspect stealth.^[34][39] Flights with prototypes^[109] powered by the WS-10C were underway by November 2020.^[110] The PLAAF began receiving WS-10C powered aircraft by 2021.^[111] In January 2022, it was reported that aircraft powered by the WS-10C would be upgraded with TVC.^[99] Erportedly, the WS-10C enabled supercruise.^[100][101]
【参考译文】由于WS-15发动机的测试和生产延迟，沈阳涡扇-10C（WS-10C）被选为AL-31发动机的替代产品。[107]截至2019年9月，装备WS-10C发动机的飞机已经在进行飞行。[39]该发动机的推力为142-147千牛，[34][39]推重比为9.5，[102]为歼-20实现超巡提供了必要的推力，并配备了锯齿形加力燃烧室喷口，以增强后向隐身性能。[34][39]截至2020年11月，装备WS-10C发动机的原型机[109]正在飞行测试中。[110]到2021年，中国空军开始接收装备WS-10C发动机的飞机。[111]2022年1月有报道称，装备WS-10C发动机的飞机将升级为具有推力矢量控制（TVC）功能的飞机。[99]据报道，WS-10C发动机使飞机具备了超巡能力。[100][101]

2021年，解放军“空军在线”5日发布的宣传视频，展示了一架装备隐身构型涡扇-10“太行”发动机的歼-20战机起飞的镜头。这是中国空军首次证实有装备国产发动机的歼-20加入空军部队序列。未来，中国制造的第五代战机歼-20将全部换装国产发动机，并将加入作战部队序列。在先进的国产发动机和推力矢量技术的加持下，歼-20B的作战力显然也会得到大幅提高。^[103]同年珠海航展首官宣使用了“中国心”，此前珠海航展上已经有表示过进行国产动力的动态展示，而此次为正式确认歼-20的发动机已经国产化，但未透露具体型号^[104]。

The intended powerplant is the Shenyang WS-15^[98] with a thrust of 180 kN.^[112][113] The WS-15 enables supercruise, enhances maneuverability,^[97] and gives the J-20 more thrust than the F-22 and F-35.^[51] The engine’s extra power and cooling could also be used by future directed energy weapons and sensors.^[114][113] The WS-15 development was reportedly ongoing in 2019.^[98][107] In March 2022, Chinese state media reported that the J-20 had performed flight trials^[53] with the engine and experienced significantly improved performance.^[52] It was also reported that eventually, new production and existing aircraft powered by the AL-31 would be fitted with the WS-15.^[52] In April 2023, China reported that the WS-15 was ready for mass production.^[56]
【参考译文】预期的动力装置是沈阳涡扇-15（WS-15），其推力为180千牛。[112][113]WS-15发动机使飞机能够实现超巡，提高了机动性，[97]并为歼-20提供了比F-22和F-35更大的推力。[51]该发动机的额外动力和冷却能力还可能用于未来的定向能武器和传感器。[114][113]据报道，WS-15发动机的研发工作在2019年仍在进行中。[98][107]2022年3月，中国官方媒体报道称，歼-20已使用该发动机进行了飞行试验，[53]性能有了显著提升。[52]据报道，最终，新生产的和现役的AL-31动力飞机都将换装WS-15发动机。[52]2023年4月，中国报道称WS-15发动机已准备好进行批量生产。[56]

The aircraft is equipped with a retractable refueling probe embedded on the right side of the cockpit, to help the fighter to maintain stealth while flying greater distances.^[115]
【参考译文】该飞机在驾驶舱右侧嵌入了一个可伸缩的加油探杆，有助于飞机在飞行更远距离时保持隐身性能。[115]

2023年3月16日至17日，中国航发北京航空材料研究院项目负责人张勇向与会专家介绍：“长期困扰我国军用飞机工业的“心脏病”问题已经得到了解决，涡扇15、涡扇-19和涡扇-20发动机以及一种型号未知的下一代发动机，技术瓶颈被全部克服，并且实现了小批量生产”^[105]。2023年3月末起，涡扇-15正式进入量产阶段^[100][101]。

2.7 武器挂载 | Armament

2018年珠海航展上展示歼-20弹仓容量为4枚中距弹+2枚近距格斗弹，而格斗弹仓门是子母式独创设计，可将导弹伸出后再关闭80%舱门确保气动外型平滑，当近距空战中隐身性已经失去大部分优势，气动性能的机动为重要关键。另一方面首次展示了埋设于机身中的空中加油管，而该等接口亦预留日后改用飞椼式加油的条件。^[106]2021年，第13届中国航展上揭露了歼-20速度可达2马赫，并公开了配套的霹雳-15E导弹的武器数据，称最大射程达145公里，并具有双向数据链修正能力，也就是具备在飞行中途改变打击目标的能力。报导指出，霹雳-15E是霹雳-15导弹的出口型号，故射程有所缩减，而外界推断，解放军自用的霹雳-15实际性能在200到300公里，相较之下，美军最新型号AIM-120D射程约160公里^[107]。

The main weapon bay is capable of housing both long-range air-to-air missiles (AAM; PL-15 – PL-21) and precision-guided munitions (PGM; LS-6/50, LS-6/100,^[84] FT-7^[85]), while the two smaller lateral weapon bays behind the air inlets are intended for short-range AAMs (PL-10). These side bays allow closure of the bay doors prior to firing the missile, enhancing stealth and allowing the missile to be fired in the shortest possible time.^[86][87] The main bay may carry four medium/long-range AAMs, with each lateral bay carrying a short-range missile.^[88] In 2023, the United States reported that China planned to increase the J-20’s missile capacity in “low-observable configuration”.^[61] A staggered arrangement of six PL-15s is possible with modified rail launchers under development.^[82] A thinner profile missile, designated PL-16, was also reportedly under development in 2020 to allow the six missiles for internal carriage.^[89] The PL-16 features a compressed airframe, folded fins, and a high-performance dual-pulse motor to reduce size, while maintaining the same level of performance as the PL-15.^[90] The J-20 will likely use air-to-air missiles to engage in air superiority combat with other aircraft and to destroy high-value airborne assets. Supplemental missions may include launching anti-radiation missiles and air-to-ground munitions for precision-strike missions.^[91]
【参考译文】主武器舱能够装载远程空对空导弹（AAM；PL-15至PL-21）和精确制导弹药（PGM；LS-6/50、LS-6/100、[84] FT-7[85]），而位于进气口后方的两个较小的侧武器舱则用于装载短程空对空导弹（PL-10）。这些侧舱允许在发射导弹前关闭舱门，从而提高隐身性能，并使导弹能在尽可能短的时间内发射。[86][87]主舱可携带四枚中远程空对空导弹，每个侧舱可携带一枚短程导弹。[88]2023年，美国报道称中国计划增加歼-20在“低可探测配置”下的导弹携带量。[61]通过正在开发的改进型导轨发射器，可以实现六枚PL-15导弹的交错排列。[82]据报道，2020年还在开发一种更薄的导弹——PL-16，以便携带六枚导弹进行内部装载。[89]PL-16导弹具有压缩机身、折叠尾翼和高性能双脉冲发动机，可在减小尺寸的同时保持与PL-15相同的性能水平。[90]歼-20可能会使用空对空导弹与其他飞机进行空战以夺取制空权，并摧毁高价值空中目标。其补充任务可能包括发射反辐射导弹和空对地弹药以执行精确打击任务。[91]

The wings include four hardpoints for auxiliary fuel tanks to extend the ferrying range^[92] and large weapons, like the PL-17. The J-20 is unlikely to be the primary carrier of such large weapons as they compromise the aircraft’s stealth.^[93]
【参考译文】机翼设有四个硬点，用于挂载辅助燃油箱以延长转场航程[92]和挂载大型武器，如PL-17。歼-20不太可能成为这类大型武器的主要载体，因为这会损害飞机的隐身性能。[93]

The J-20 reportedly lacks an internal autocannon or rotary cannon, suggesting a preference for long-range engagements with missiles rather than short-ranged dogfights.^[94][95]
【参考译文】据报道，歼-20没有内置机炮或旋转炮塔，这表明其更倾向于使用导弹进行远程交战，而不是进行短程空战。[94][95]

3. 运用历史 | Operational history

3.1 试飞 | Flight testing

On 10 December 2010, the first J-20 prototype was observed undertaking high-speed taxiing tests around the Chengdu Aircraft Design Institute (CADI) facilities before the maiden flight.^[6]
【参考译文】2010年12月10日，首架歼-20原型机在首飞前，被观察到在成都飞机设计研究所（CADI）设施周围进行高速滑行测试。[6]

On 11 January 2011, the first J-20 prototype (numbered “2001”) made its first flight, lasting about 15 minutes, with a Chengdu J-10B serving as the chase aircraft.^[1][2] After the successful flight, a ceremony was held, attended by the pilot, Li Gang, Chief Designer Yang Wei and General Li Andong, Deputy-Director of General Armaments.^[139] On 17 April 2011, a second test flight of an hour and 20 minutes took place.^[140] On 5 May 2011, a 55-minute test flight was held that included retraction of the landing gear.^[141] On 26 February 2012, the first prototype J-20 performed various low-altitude maneuvers.^[142][143]
【参考译文】2011年1月11日，编号为“2001”的首架歼-20原型机进行了首次飞行，持续约15分钟，成都歼-10B作为伴飞飞机。[1][2]飞行成功后，举行了仪式，飞行员李刚、总设计师杨伟以及总装备部副部长李安东出席。[139]2011年4月17日，进行了第二次飞行测试，时长1小时20分钟。[140]2011年5月5日，进行了55分钟的飞行测试，其中包括起落架的收放。[141]2012年2月26日，首架歼-20原型机进行了各种低空机动飞行。[142][143]

On 10 May 2012, the second prototype (numbered “2002”) underwent high-speed taxiing tests, and flight testing that began later that month.^[144][22] On 20 October 2012, photographs of the prototype with open compartment doors and a modified pitot tube emerged,^{[N 2]} suggesting the possible inclusion of radar or sensors. In March 2013, images of the side weapon bays appeared, displaying a missile launch rail.^[145][146]
【参考译文】2012年5月10日，第二架原型机（编号为“2002”）进行了高速滑行测试，并于当月晚些时候开始了飞行测试。[144][22]2012年10月20日，出现了原型机舱门打开和皮托管经过改装的照片，[N 2]暗示可能加入了雷达或传感器。2013年3月，出现了侧弹舱的图片，展示了导弹发射架。[145][146]

【英文词条原注N 2】Some sources claimed the aircraft with open compartment doors was a new prototype, however, this is likely a confusion caused by repainted numbers or doctored photos.^[26]
【参考译文】一些消息来源声称，这架舱门敞开的飞机是一架新的原型机，然而，这很可能是由于重新绘制的数字或篡改的照片造成的混淆。[26]

On 16 January 2014, the third J-20 prototype was revealed, showing new intakes, embedded engine nozzles, and stealth coating, as well as redesigned vertical stabilizers, and an Electro-Optical Targeting System.^{[119][25][147]} This particular aircraft, numbered “2011”, performed its maiden flight on 1 March 2014 and is said to represent the initial pre-serial standard.^[23]
【参考译文】2014年1月16日，第三架歼-20原型机亮相，展示了新的进气道、嵌入式发动机喷口和隐身涂层，以及重新设计的垂直安定面和光电瞄准系统。[119][25][147]这架编号为“2011”的飞机于2014年3月1日进行了首飞，据说代表了初步的预生产标准。[23]

By the end of 2014, three more pre-serial prototypes were flown, each with incremental improvements to the design. The fourth prototype “2012” was tested on 26 July 2014, sharing many similarities with the “2011”. This pair of aircraft was reportedly powered by AL-31FM2 engines.^[148][149] The fifth prototype, numbered “2013”, took off on 29 November 2014.^[150] Three weeks later, number “2015” made its maiden flight on 19 December 2014, indicating rapid construction capability. Both prototypes featured retractable aerial refueling probes and infrared-suppression engine nozzles.^[117] The sixth prototype “2015” featured a slight alteration to tail booms, suggesting the installation of rear-facing sensors. PLAAF also modified an airliner to serve as the AESA radar test-bed for the J-20 program.^[150]
【参考译文】截至2014年底，又有三架预生产原型机进行了飞行，每架都在设计上有了逐步改进。第四架原型机“2012”于2014年7月26日进行了测试，与“2011”有很多相似之处。据报道，这两架飞机都使用了AL-31FM2发动机。[148][149]第五架原型机，编号为“2013”，于2014年11月29日起飞。[150]三周后，编号为“2015”的飞机于2014年12月19日进行了首飞，表明了快速的建造能力。这两架原型机都配备了可伸缩的空中加油探杆和红外抑制发动机喷口。[117]第六架原型机“2015”的尾梁略有改动，暗示安装了后向传感器。中国空军还将一架客机改装为歼-20项目的有源相控阵雷达测试平台。[150]

On 13 September 2015, a new prototype, marked “2016”, began testing. It had noticeable improvements, such as apparently modified DSI bumps on the intakes. The DSI changes suggested the possibility of more powerful engines being used than its predecessors, likely to be an advanced 14-ton thrust derivative of the Russian AL-31 or Chinese Shenyang WS-10 turbofan engines. By 2020, the J-20 is scheduled to use the 18–19 ton WS-15 engine, enabling the jet to supercruise without using afterburners. The trapezoidal flight booms around the engines were further enlarged, possibly to accommodate rearwards-facing radars, electronic countermeasures, and jamming equipment. The fuselage was extended to the engine’s exhaust nozzles. Compared to its “2014” and “2015” predecessors, the engine’s surface area is further embedded inside the stealthy coating, providing greater rear-facing stealth against enemy detection.^[117]
【参考译文】2015年9月13日，一架新原型机，标记为“2016”，开始测试。它有明显的改进，如进气道上的无附面层隔道（DSI）凸起似乎经过了修改。DSI的变化表明，与前辈相比，它可能使用了更强大的发动机，很可能是俄罗斯AL-31或中国沈阳涡扇-10涡扇发动机的14吨推力衍生型号的高级版。到2020年，歼-20计划使用18-19吨的涡扇-15发动机，使飞机能够在不使用加力燃烧室的情况下实现超巡。发动机周围的梯形飞行吊舱进一步扩大，可能是为了容纳后向雷达、电子对抗和干扰设备。机身延伸至发动机排气喷口。与“2014”和“2015”前辈相比，发动机的表面积进一步嵌入在隐身涂层内，提供了更大的后向隐身能力，以躲避敌方探测。[117]

On 24 November 2015, a new J-20 prototype, numbered “2017”, took to the sky. The most significant change in the new prototype was the reshaped cockpit canopy, which provides the pilot with greater visibility. The lack of other design changes suggested that “2017” is very close to the final J-20 production configuration. Since ‘2017’ was likely the last J-20 prototype, the low rate initial production (LRIP) of the J-20 is likely to begin in 2016.^[151] Chinese media reported that the design of the J-20 was frozen and finalized, as formal ceremonies were held for the prototype “2017” after completing the flight testing.^[152] The LRIP version later appeared in December 2015.^[27]
【参考译文】2015年11月24日，一架新的歼-20原型机，编号为“2017”，飞上天空。新原型机最显著的变化是重新设计的座舱盖，为飞行员提供了更大的视野。没有其他设计变化的迹象表明，“2017”非常接近歼-20的最终生产配置。由于“2017”很可能是最后一架歼-20原型机，因此歼-20的低速率初始生产（LRIP）很可能在2016年开始。[151]中国媒体报道称，歼-20的设计已经确定并最终完成，因为为完成飞行测试的原型机“2017”举行了正式仪式。[152]LRIP版本随后在2015年12月出现。[27]

In March 2017, Chinese media reported that the fighter entered service. But it still faced a series of technical challenges that needed to be tackled, including the reliability of its WS-15 engines, the aircraft’s flight control system, stealth coatings, hull materials, and infrared sensor.^[153] In September 2017, a newly built J-20 prototype (numbered “2021”) was flight testing with Chinese-made WS-10 Taihang engines, featuring sawtoothed serration edge on its afterburning nozzles.^[154] The J-20 with indigenous WS-10C engines began production in 2019.^[34][91]
【参考译文】2017年3月，中国媒体报道称，该战斗机已服役。但它仍然面临一系列需要解决的技术挑战，包括涡扇-15发动机的可靠性、飞机的飞行控制系统、隐身涂层、机身材料和红外传感器。[153]2017年9月，一架新建的歼-20原型机（编号为“2021”）进行了飞行测试，使用的是中国制造的涡扇-10太行发动机，其加力燃烧室喷口具有锯齿形锯齿边缘。[154]装有国产涡扇-10C发动机的歼-20于2019年开始生产。[34][91]

In September 2018, it was reported that issues with the development of the WS-15 engine, particularly the reliability of the turbine blades overheating at top speeds were fixed.^[155] The WS-15 reportedly required further development after failing final verification testing at the end of 2019.^[40] The COVID-19 pandemic imposed further delays.^[107] In March 2022, Chinese state media reported that the WS-15 engine completed final testing.^[156]
【参考译文】2018年9月，据报道，涡扇-15发动机的开发问题，特别是涡轮叶片在最高速度下过热的可靠性问题，已经得到解决。[155]据报道，涡扇-15在2019年底未能通过最终验证测试后，还需要进一步发展。[40]新冠肺炎疫情造成了进一步的延误。[107]2022年3月，中国官方媒体报道称，涡扇-15发动机完成了最终测试。[156]

In November 2021, the US military reported that the J-20 was gradually receiving upgrades.^[157] In the same month, new J-20 two-seater variant began flight testing.^[158]
【参考译文】2021年11月，美军报道称，歼-20正在逐步进行升级。[157]同月，新的歼-20双座型开始了飞行测试。[158]

In December 2022, the prototype “2051” in yellow premier coat took flight. The new prototype had a redesigned canopy section and was speculated for engine and thrust-vectoring testing^[54][55] In March 2023, J-20 fitted with one Shenyang WS-15 engine reportedly performed experimental flights.^[51] On 29 June 2023, the J-20 prototype “2052” equipped with two distinguishable WS-15 engines took flight in Chengdu,^[159] captured by Chinese military enthusiasts and spread throughout social media.^[59] Another prototype with serial number “2053” also reportedly conducted a test flight in the same period with WS-15 engines.^[160] Despite the lack of clear pictures, circumstantial evidence such as a photo of the engine installation ceremony, lack of censorship by the authorities, and modified airframe suggested the WS-15 was evidently mounted, though Janes Information Services noted the engines on trial apparently lacks the thrust vectoring control (TVC) paddles, which could be added later.^{[161][162][163]} According to editor of Beijing-based Aerospace Knowledge magazine, vector thrust control and variable cycle engines were “likely under development”.^[164] In 2024, clear photo evidence confirmed that J-20 prototypes took flight with the WS-15, and the engine approached the final stage of testing before serial production.^[160][164] Analyst Rick Joe speculated the initial production batch of the revised J-20 model might enter service with WS-10 or WS-15 engine, depending on the circumstances surrounding the development.^[7]
【参考译文】2022年12月，黄色首涂的原型机“2051”进行了飞行。新的原型机对座舱盖部分进行了重新设计，推测是用于发动机和推力矢量控制的测试。[54][55]2023年3月，据报道，装备了一台沈阳涡扇-15发动机的歼-20进行了试验飞行。[51]2023年6月29日，在成都，装备了两台明显不同的涡扇-15发动机的歼-20原型机“2052”进行了飞行，被中国军事爱好者拍摄并在社交媒体上传播。[159][59]据称，另一架编号为“2053”的原型机也在同期进行了装备涡扇-15发动机的试飞。[160]尽管没有清晰的照片，但发动机安装仪式的照片、当局未进行审查以及经过改装的机身等间接证据表明，涡扇-15显然已经安装，不过，简氏信息服务公司（Janes Information Services）指出，试验中的发动机似乎缺少推力矢量控制（TVC）桨叶，这些桨叶可能会在稍后添加。[161][162][163]据总部位于北京的《太空知识》杂志编辑称，推力矢量控制和变循环发动机“可能正在开发中”。[164]2024年，清晰的照片证据证实，歼-20原型机装备了涡扇-15进行了飞行，该发动机已接近批量生产前的最终测试阶段。[160][164]分析人士里克·乔（Rick Joe）推测，根据涡扇-10或涡扇-15发动机开发情况，修订后的歼-20型号的初步生产批次可能会装备这两种发动机之一。[7]

3.2 生产 | Production

In late December 2015, a new J-20 numbered 2101 was spotted; it is believed to be the LRIP version of the aircraft.^[27] Chinese media suggested the stealth aircraft will enter production ahead of schedule.^[165] In July 2016, pre-production models with dark-grey paint and low visibility insignias were spotted inside a Chengdu Aerospace Corporation (CAC) facility. The production rate indicated an intended initial operational capability (IOC) date of around 2017–2018.^[166]
【参考译文】2015年12月底，编号为2101的新型歼-20被发现，据信这是该战机的低速率初始生产（LRIP）版本。[27]中国媒体称，这款隐形战机将提前进入生产阶段。[165]2016年7月，人们在成都航天科技工业公司（CAC）的一处设施内发现了涂有深灰色油漆且带有低可视度标志的预生产型战机。生产速度表明，歼-20预计将在2017年至2018年左右具备初步作战能力（IOC）。[166]

In October 2017, Chinese media reported that CAC initiated the serial production for the J-20 and is on a path towards achieving full operational capability with the People’s Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF). State media described the CAC’s production rate as “stable”, meaning achieving a regular production rate for minimal economies of scale. The production rate was expected to be three aircraft per month.^[167][168]
【参考译文】2017年10月，中国媒体报道称，成都航天科技工业公司已启动歼-20的批量生产，并正朝着使歼-20具备中国人民解放军空军（PLAAF）全面作战能力的目标迈进。国家媒体称，该公司的生产“稳定”，即达到了最小规模经济的常规生产速度。预计每月将生产三架战机。[167][168]

In 2019, CAC began manufacturing J-20 fitted with Chinese-made WS-10 Taihang engines.^[32] J-20s manufactured after mid-2019 were no longer fitted with Russian AL-31F turbofan engines.^[34] The PLAAF began receiving WS-10C powered aircraft by 2021.^[111] The production rate of J-20 was expected to be further increased.^[169][170]
【参考译文】2019年，成都航天科技工业公司开始制造装备国产WS-10太行发动机的歼-20。[32]2019年中以后制造的歼-20不再装备俄罗斯AL-31F涡轮风扇发动机。[34]到2021年，中国人民解放军空军已开始接收装备WS-10C发动机的战机。[111]预计歼-20的生产速度将进一步提升。[169][170]

In January 2022, United States Air Force (USAF) analyst Derek Solen estimated 50 to 74 fighters were in service based on open-source intelligence.^[171] In August 2022, USAF analyst Li Xiaobing reported that over 150 had been delivered;^[172] claims of 150 being in service had been made in 2021.^[173]
【参考译文】2022年1月，美国空军分析师德里克·索伦根据开源情报估计，已有50至74架歼-20战机在役。[171]2022年8月，美国空军分析师李晓兵报道称，已有超过150架歼-20交付；[172]2021年已有声称在役战机数量为150架的报道。[173]

In late-2022, Andreas Rupprecht estimated total production at 208 aircraft – including pre-production aircraft – based on interpreting serial numbers;^[174] an alternate interpretation with satellite images estimated 170-180.^[159] The International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) reported more than 140 aircraft in service in 2022.^[175] According to Bronk, the aircraft at the 2022 China International Aviation & Aerospace Exhibition had visible improvements to manufacturing tolerance and quality control.^[174] According to the Chinese military, CAC accelerated production and delivery by implementing a pulse assembly line. According to Chinese military analysts, this was a response to increasing numbers of F-35 fighters deployed by the United States in the Asia-Pacific.^[176][177]
【参考译文】2022年末，安德烈亚斯·鲁普雷希特根据序列号解读估计，包括预生产战机在内的总产量为208架；[174]另一种结合卫星图像的解读估计产量为170至180架。[159]国际战略研究所（IISS）报告称，2022年有超过140架战机在役。[175]据布朗克称，在2022年中国国际航空航天博览会上展出的战机在制造公差和质量控制方面有了可见改进。[174]据中国军方称，成都航天科技工业公司通过实施脉动式装配线，加快了生产和交付速度。据中国军事分析师称，这是对美国在亚太地区部署的F-35战机数量不断增加的回应。[176][177]

In 2023, the reported number of J-20s exceeded the 187 F-22 airframes. IISS reported that more than 200 aircraft were produced by the end of 2023.^[178] The Diplomat reported up to 250 aircraft by July 2023, and predicted production reaching 100 aircraft per year by the end of 2023. Defense analysts had predicted the number of J-20s would match the F-22s in 2027.^[159]
【参考译文】2023年，据报道，歼-20的数量已超过187架F-22战斗机机体。国际战略研究所报告称，截至2023年底，已生产超过200架歼-20。[178]《外交家》杂志报道称，截至2023年7月，歼-20的数量已达250架，并预测到2023年底，年产量将达到100架。国防分析师曾预测，歼-20的数量将在2027年赶上F-22。[159]

In mid-2024, Janes Information Services estimated that approximately 195 aircraft were in PLAAF service, with more than 70 aircraft inducted between July 2023 and June 2024.^[77]
【参考译文】2024年中，简氏信息集团估计，中国人民解放军空军约有195架歼-20在役，其中70多架是在2023年7月至2024年6月期间入役的。[77]

3.3 训练 | Training

Pilot training for the J-20 started as early as March 2017, after the fighter entered limited service in the initial operational capability (IOC) phase. During the IOC phase, the fighters are equipped with radar reflectors, also known as the Luneburg lens, to enlarge and conceal the actual radar cross-section.^[179][136]
【参考译文】歼-20的飞行员训练早在2017年3月就已开始，当时这款战斗机还处于初步作战能力（IOC）阶段的有限服役期。在IOC阶段，歼-20装备了雷达反射器（又称伦伯格透镜），以增大并隐蔽实际的雷达截面积。[179][136]

The J-20 participated in its first combat exercise in January 2018, practicing beyond-visual-range maneuvers against China’s fourth-generation fighters such as J-16 and J-10C. The exercise was reported to be realistic.^[180] Training with mixed generations allows pilots to become familiar with fifth-generation aircraft, and to develop tactics both for and against them.^[181] Chinese Ministry of National Defense also revealed that J-20 has conducted night confrontation missions during several coordinated tactical training exercises.^[182]
【参考译文】2018年1月，歼-20首次参加实战演习，与中国第四代战斗机如歼-16和歼-10C进行了超视距机动对抗。据报道，此次演习非常逼真。[180]跨代混合训练使飞行员能够熟悉第五代战斗机，并制定出针对第五代战斗机的战术以及被其对抗的战术。[181]中国国防部还透露，在多次协同战术训练中，歼-20执行了夜间对抗任务。[182]

The J-20 participated in its first over-ocean combat exercise in May 2018.^[183]
【参考译文】2018年5月，歼-20首次参加了跨海实战演习。[183]

In April 2022, the J-20 is confirmed to be engaged in regular maritime patrols in the East China Sea and the South China Sea for routine training missions, in a statement released by CAC.^[184][185]
【参考译文】2022年4月，成都航天科技工业公司（CAC）发布的一份声明证实，歼-20已参与东海和南海的常规海上巡逻任务，进行日常训练。[184][185]

In March 2023, Chinese state media reported that the PLAAF uses J-20 fighters to simulate the F-35 in surface strike missions during opposing force training. The exercise tested the command chain and kill chain integration between the PLA Ground Force and Air Force, with two branches sharing real-time data for combined air defense missions and training tactics against stealth fighters.^[186]
【参考译文】2023年3月，中国官方媒体报道称，中国人民解放军空军（PLAAF）在反对方训练中，使用歼-20战斗机模拟F-35执行对地打击任务。此次演习检验了解放军陆军和空军之间的指挥链和杀伤链整合能力，这两个军种共享实时数据，以执行联合防空任务并训练对抗隐形战斗机的战术。[186]

3.4 部署 | Deployment

On 12 December 2016, at least six J-20s were observed in PLAAF air bases, with tail numbers 78271-78276 identified.^[187] Another six were believed to be ready for delivery by the end of December 2016.^[188] On 9 March 2017, Chinese media revealed that the J-20 had entered service in the Chinese Air Force,^[3][4] making China the second country in the world—after the United States—and the first in Asia to field an operational fifth-generation stealth aircraft.^[16] Chinese National Defense Ministry confirmed the service status in September 2017.^[180] It is anticipated that frontline units could be equipped with the low observable combat aircraft before 2020. The International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) proposed that, as the trend continues, the US could lose its monopoly on operational stealth aircraft.^[189]
【参考译文】2016年12月12日，中国空军（PLAAF）基地至少有6架歼-20被发现，其尾号分别为78271-78276。[187]据信，另有6架歼-20将于2016年12月底前交付。[188]2017年3月9日，中国媒体透露，歼-20已正式列装中国空军，[3][4]使中国成为继美国之后世界上第二个、亚洲第一个部署实战型第五代隐形战斗机的国家。[16]2017年9月，中国国防部确认了歼-20的服役状态。[180]预计2020年前，前线部队将装备这款低可探测性战斗机。国际战略研究所（IISS）提出，随着这一趋势的继续，美国将失去对实战型隐形战斗机的垄断地位。[189]

The PLAAF began inducting J-20s into combat units in February 2018,^[5] one month after its first combat drill.^[180] The aircraft entered service with the 9th Fighter Brigade based at Wuhu Air Base, Anhui province in late 2018 – March 2019, replacing Su-30MKK fighters previously deployed there.^[5][190]
【参考译文】中国空军于2018年2月开始将歼-20编入作战部队，[5]距其首次实战演习仅一个月。[180]2018年末至2019年3月间，该战斗机列装位于安徽省芜湖空军基地的第9歼击机旅，取代此前部署在那里的苏-30MKK战斗机。[5][190]

On 27 August 2019, the Central Military Commission of the People’s Liberation Army approved the J-20 as the PLAN’s future primary fighter, beating out the Shenyang FC-31. Arguments for the J-20 state that the plane is far more advanced, longer-ranged, and carries a heavier payload than the FC-31, while those supporting the FC-31 argued that it is cheaper, lighter, and far more maneuverable than the J-20. The J-20 would likely be commissioned upon the Type 003 aircraft carrier under construction, however, the length of the J-20 means that it has to be shortened to be considered operable on an aircraft carrier.^[191]
【参考译文】2019年8月27日，中国人民解放军中央军事委员会批准歼-20作为中国海军未来的主力战斗机，击败了沈阳FC-31战斗机。支持歼-20的意见认为，这款飞机比FC-31更为先进，航程更远，且载荷更大；而支持FC-31的意见则认为，它更便宜、更轻、且机动性远超歼-20。歼-20很可能会被部署在在建的003型航空母舰上，然而，歼-20的长度意味着它必须缩短，才能被视为可在航空母舰上操作。[191]

On 26 June 2021, Chinese state media reported that J-20 fighters were deployed to PLAAF units monitoring the East China Sea and Taiwan Strait. Analysts suggested that the PLAAF aimed to equip at least one to two brigades in each of the five theater commands before 2026.^[192] By 2022, J-20s were deployed in combat units in all five theater commands;^[193] this was officially confirmed in September 2022.^[194]
【参考译文】2021年6月26日，中国官方媒体报道称，歼-20战斗机已部署至中国空军监控东海和台湾海峡的部队。分析人士认为，中国空军旨在2026年前为五个战区司令部中的每一个至少装备一至两个旅。[192]截至2022年，歼-20已部署至所有五个战区司令部的作战部队；[193]这一消息于2022年9月正式得到确认。[194]

In March 2022, USAF general Kenneth Wilsbach confirmed that USAF F-35s have encountered J-20s deployed over the East China Sea.^[195] In April 2022, Chinese state media reported J-20 started regular patrol in the South China Sea.^[196]
【参考译文】2022年3月，美国空军（USAF）将军肯尼斯·威尔斯巴赫证实，美国空军F-35战斗机已在东海上空遭遇部署在那里的歼-20。[195]2022年4月，中国官方媒体报道称，歼-20已开始在中国南海进行定期巡逻。[196]

According to the China Aerospace Studies Institute (CASI), three combat brigades received the J-20 by 2021, another three by 2022, and another two by 2024.^[193] In June 2024, Janes reported 12 brigades with J-20s, of which three (1st, 9th, and an unidentified unit at Changsha-Ningxiang) were equipped only with J-20s.^[77] Asia Times reported that PLAAF had prioritized deploying J-20s for airbases close to China’s maritime border, and believed J-20’s long combat range is well-suited for high-speed interceptions, strategic area defense, and long-range strike missions over the First– and Second-island chain.^[114]
【参考译文】据中国航空研究院（CASI）称，截至2021年，已有三个作战旅接收了歼-20，截至2022年再有三个旅接收，截至2024年还将有两个旅接收。[193]2024年6月，Janes报道称，有12个旅装备了歼-20，其中三个旅（第1旅、第9旅和位于长沙-宁乡的一个未公开单位）仅装备了歼-20。[77]据《亚洲时报》报道，中国空军已优先将歼-20部署至靠近中国海上边界的空军基地，并认为歼-20的超长作战半径非常适合在第一岛链和第二岛链上空进行高速拦截、战略区域防御和远程打击任务。[114]

3.5 J-20项目里程碑概览 | Summary of program milestones

The following is a table of significant milestones in the J-20 program history as gleaned from public sources and cited previously in the present article:
【参考译文】下表是根据公开资料整理得出的J-20项目历史上的重要里程碑，这些资料在本文之前已有提及：

J-20 program milestone 【歼-20项目里程碑】	Date【日期】	Public sources 【公开信源】	Notes【备注】
Precursor program (J-XX) 【（J-XX）前身项目】	late-1990s 【20世纪90年代末】	[17][18]	Solicitation for competing 5th generation fighter designs from Chengdu Aerospace Corporation and Shenyang Aerospace Corporation 【面向成都航天科技集团和沈阳航天科技集团的第五代战斗机设计方案竞标邀请】
Program inception 【项目启动】	~2008【约2008年】	[17][18]	CAC‘s twin-engine design with canards (project 718) selected by PLA; 1st flight expected to occur in the 2010-2011 time frame with service entry by 2019[19] 【成都飞机公司（CAC）的带鸭翼的双发设计方案（718项目）被中国人民解放军选中；预计将在2010-2011年间进行首飞，并于2019年前服役[19]。】
First flight【首飞】	11 January 2011 【2011年1月11日】	[1][2]	~15 minutes first flight made by prototype number “2002” 【编号为‘2002’的原型机进行了约15分钟的首飞】
Low rate initial production 【小批量初期生产】	~December 2015 【2015年12月】	[152][27]	J-20 design reportedly frozen after flight by prototype number “2017” in late 2015; first suspected LRIP airframe (number “2101”) appeared by 12/2015 【据报道，在2015年末编号为“2017”的原型机完成飞行测试后，J-20的设计被确定（或冻结）；而第一架疑似低速初始生产（LRIP）阶段的机体（编号为“2101”）在2015年12月出现。】
Initial operational capability 【初始作战能力】	~2017–2018 【约2017至2018年】	[166][167][180][4]	Entry into service and pilot training may have begun by March 2017 with initial combat exercises involving J-20s by January 2018 【到2017年3月，J-20可能已经开始服役并启动了飞行员培训；而到了2018年1月，J-20可能已经参与了初步的实战演习。】
Active use of domestic powerplant 【积极利用国产动力装置】	mid-2019 to mid-2021 【2019年中至2021年中】	[34]	J-20s produced after mid-2019 may all use domestic WS-10C engines instead of Russian AL-31F engines; J-20s with WS-10C in active service by June 2021 【自2019年中之后生产的J-20战斗机可能全部使用国产WS-10C发动机，而非俄罗斯的AL-31F发动机；到2021年6月前，装备有WS-10C发动机的J-20战斗机可能会正式服役。】
100th airframe 【第 100 架飞机】	2021–2022	[171][172]	CAC announces mass production of J-20s in December 2021; US defense analysts estimate the number of produced and delivered J-20s to be at 50 to over 150 during the period from 2021 to mid-2022 【成都飞机公司（CAC）于2021年12月宣布J-20战斗机实现批量生产；而美国国防分析人士估计，在2021年至2022年中期间，生产和交付的J-20战斗机数量在50架至150多架之间。】
200th airframe 【第200架飞机】	late 2022–late 2023 【2022年底至2023年底】	[174][159]	Conservative western estimates place the number of J-20s in excess of 187 by the end of 2022 to early 2023; the total number of airframes in excess of 200 was possible by late 2022 and all but certain by the end of 2023 【西方较为保守的估计认为，到2022年底至2023年初，J-20战斗机的数量将超过187架；到2022年底，总数超过200架已成为可能，而到2023年底，这一数字几乎可以肯定将实现。】
Tests with the WS-15 【装配涡扇-15试飞】	29 June 2023 【2023年6月29日】	[159][161][162]	First flight of prototype number “2052”, a J-20 variant sporting two WS-15 engines, the intended powerplant for the aircraft, and other enhancements 【原型机“2052”号的首次飞行，这是一架经过改进型设计的J-20战斗机，它配备了原定的动力装置——两台WS-15发动机，并进行了其他方面的性能提升。】
200th to 250th airframe 【第200至250架飞机】	~end of 2023 【2023年底】	[93][197]	end of 2023 estimate by the International Institute for Strategic Studies and Netherland’s Scramble magazine 【据国际战略研究所和荷兰《Scramble》杂志估计，到2023年底】
300th airframe 【第200架飞机】	~mid 2024【2024年中】	[7]	mid-2024 estimate by OSINT analyst Rick Joe 【据开源情报（OSINT）分析师Rick Joe估计，到2024年中】

3.6 行动历史

2018年5月，印度空军参谋长达诺阿在一次新闻发布会上宣称曾经探测到中国的歼-20活动，并补充苏-30MKI的雷达“足够优秀”得以在“数公里外”发现歼-20；^[112]英国智库皇家联合研究所的分析师贾斯汀·布隆克（英语：Justin Bronk）指出了由于可能发生事故，以及​​可能由于其隐身性不易被其他飞机或地面设施识别，中国会在和平时期出于安全和训练目的在歼-20上安装龙勃透镜以加大雷达反射面积。^[112]

2022年3月16日，美国太平洋空军司令，空军上将肯尼斯·S·维尔斯巴赫证实了一次F-35战斗机与歼-20的“相对近距离的接触”，但否认了这次事件是一次“交战”。维尔斯巴赫同时提到了美国空军对歼-20的指挥与控制系统“印象相对深刻”。而对于歼-20的用途，维尔斯巴赫则表示迄今为止美军虽然只见到歼-20执行空中优势任务，但现在要定义歼-20是一款像F-22一样的单纯的空优战斗机还是一款像F-35多用途战斗机，还为时尚早^[113][1]。维尔斯巴赫同时表示，美军E-3预警机无法及时发现J-20，应该以E-737预警机取代^[114]。维尔斯巴赫又说空警-500帮助歼-20发射超长程空对空导弹，他对打断此杀伤链的能力很感兴趣。^[115][116]中国国防部回应，解放军空军主战装备还有不少发展的空间^[117]。美国空军在4月决定以E-737预警机取代E-3预警机，并列入2023会计年度预算^[118]。

2022年4月19日的一则卫星图片显示歼-20已经装备全军五大战区的空军单位^[119]。此消息于9月得到空军发言人的证实^[120]。此外，2022年4月起，歼-20已经开始常态化巡航南中国海^[121]。

4. 型号 | Variants

4.1 J-20

Flight testing began with prototypes in late 2010, with maiden flight in 2011. The variant entered serial production in October 2017. J-20 was incorporated into training units of the People’s Liberation Army Air Force in March 2017^[98] and combat units in February 2018.^[5] Initially, this variant was dubbed J-20A by analysts,^[120] while the later model with WS-15 engine was dubbed J-20B.^[51] Later photo evidence suggested that China called the WS-15-powered variant the J-20A and previous variants J-20.^[159]
【参考译文】J-20的飞行测试始于2010年末的原型机阶段，并于2011年完成了首飞。该型号于2017年10月开始批量生产。2017年3月，J-20被编入中国人民解放军空军的训练部队[98]，2018年2月编入作战部队[5]。最初，分析人士将这种型号称为J-20A[120]，而配备WS-15发动机的后续型号则被称为J-20B[51]。但后来的照片证据显示，中国将配备WS-15发动机的型号称为J-20A，而之前的型号则称为J-20[159]。

4.2 J-20A

Initially referred to as the ‘J-20B’^[98][51] by defense analysts. It’s an improved J-20 variant with a slightly raised cockpit, enlarged spine, reshaped nosecone, and modified engine intakes optimized for the WS-15 engines. Internal upgrades include an overhaul of software, avionics, and sensor suites, refines in airframe material and structures, improvements in signature reduction, and significant advancements in power and thermal management.^[7][60] Prototype #2051 was first spotted in December 2022.^[198][199]
【参考译文】最初，国防分析人士将其称为“J-20B”[98][51]。它是J-20的改进型，拥有略微抬高的驾驶舱、扩大的脊背、重新设计的机头和经过优化的发动机进气口，专为WS-15发动机设计。内部升级包括软件、航空电子设备和传感器套件的大修，机身材料和结构的改进，隐身性能的提升，以及动力和热管理的重大进步[7][60]。2022年12月，首次发现了编号为2051的原型机[198][199]。

4.3 J-20S

The twin-seat variant of J-20, designated J-20S. The aircraft was officially revealed at Zhuhai Airshow in 2024.^[200]>^[201] Initially speculated as J-20S,^[61] J-20AS, or J-20B^[50] by defense analysts, the twin-seat version of J-20 was first spotted in October 2021,^[46] taxiing inside a Chengdu Aircraft Corporation facility in yellow primer paint and untreated composite,^[202][203] making it the first twin-seat stealth fighter in the world.^[47][46]
【参考译文】J-20的双座型，被命名为J-20S。该机型于2024年珠海航展上正式亮相[200]>[201]。最初，国防分析人士推测其可能被称为J-20S[61]、J-20AS或J-20B[50]。2021年10月，首次在成都飞机公司工厂内发现了这款双座版的J-20，当时它正以黄色底漆和未处理的复合材料在滑行道上滑行[202][203]，使其成为世界上第一款双座隐形战斗机[47][46]。

The twin-seat design allows the possibility for the second operator to conduct airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) missions, which J-20 would leverage its avionics and networking capability to provide battlespace surveillance, battle management, and intelligence analysis. The stealth fighter could act as a more survivable and distributed alternative to traditional airborne warning and command post aircraft.^[204] Another possibility is to coordinate attacks and reconnaissance missions from unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAVs) linked via “loyal wingman” systems and sensors.^{[47][50][205]} China is known to be developing various “loyal wingman” prototypes such as AVIC Dark Sword.^[203] In addition to aircraft teaming, a twin-seat configuration may also provide marginal benefits in pilot training and strike missions.^[47][203]
【参考译文】双座设计使得第二名操作员有可能执行空中预警和控制（AEW&C）任务，J-20将利用其航空电子和联网能力来提供战场监视、战斗管理和情报分析。这款隐形战斗机可以作为传统空中预警和指挥所飞机的更具生存能力和分布式的替代方案[204]。另一种可能是协调通过“忠诚僚机”系统和传感器链接的无人驾驶作战飞机（UCAVs）的攻击和侦察任务[47][50][205]。中国正在开发各种“忠诚僚机”原型机，如航空工业的无人机“暗剑”[203]。除了与无人机协同作战外，双座配置还可能为飞行员训练和打击任务带来一些额外的好处[47][203]。

The advantage of a second operator includes the potential for better interpreting and exploiting the enormous sensory data, which could overload the limited cognitive and processing capacity of a single human.^[47][50] The back-seater operator would focus on managing the manned or unmanned aircraft fleet, reducing the pilot’s workload in a contested air combat environment.^[203][206] With increased automation and artificial intelligence in the aircraft system, the two men crew would likely be able to delegate more complex AEW&C tasks, absorb information, and make tactical decisions.^[204]
【参考译文】第二名操作员的优势在于能够更好地解释和利用海量的传感数据，这些数据可能会超过单个人类有限的认知和处理能力[47][50]。后座操作员将专注于管理有人驾驶或无人驾驶飞机机群，减轻飞行员在竞争激烈的空战环境中的工作负担[203][206]。随着飞机系统中自动化和人工智能的增加，两名机组人员可能能够处理更复杂的AEW&C任务，吸收信息，并做出战术决策[204]。

In August 2022, a Chinese defense publication suggested the twin-seat variant could be used as an electronic warfare platform.^[207] In October 2022, Chinese media showcased the concept of the J-20 two-seater controlling stealth Hongdu GJ-11 unmanned combat aerial vehicle, and the back seat is designated for the weapons officer.^[208][209] It could also potentially manage the LJ-1, a low-end modular drone platform.^[210]
【参考译文】2022年8月，中国的一份国防出版物暗示，这款双座型可能用作电子战平台[207]。2022年10月，中国媒体展示了J-20双座型控制隐形洪都GJ-11无人驾驶作战飞机的概念，后座为武器官[208][209]。它还有可能管理LJ-1这种低端模块化无人机平台[210]。

5. 战略意义 | Strategic implications

5.1 政治 | Political

The first test flight coincided with a visit by United States Secretary of Defense Robert Gates to China, and was initially interpreted by the Pentagon as a possible signal to the visiting US delegation. Speaking to reporters in Beijing, secretary Gates said, “I asked President Hu about it directly, and he said that the test had absolutely nothing to do with my visit and there had been a pre-planned test.”^[211][212] Hu seemed surprised by Gates’ inquiry.^{[213][214][215]} Abraham M. Denmark of the Center for New American Security in Washington, along with Michael Swaine, an expert on the PLA and United States–China military relations, explained that senior officials are not involved in the day-to-day management of aircraft development and were unaware of the test.^[212][91]
【参考译文】首次试飞恰逢美国国防部长罗伯特·盖茨访华，五角大楼最初将其解读为可能是向到访的美国代表团发出的信号。盖茨在北京对记者说：“我直接向胡锦涛主席问了这件事，他说这次试飞与我的访问绝对无关，是一次事先计划好的测试。”[211][212]胡锦涛似乎对盖茨的询问感到惊讶。[213][214][215]华盛顿新美国安全中心的亚伯拉罕·M·丹麦以及中国人民解放军和美国-中国军事关系专家迈克尔·斯瓦尼解释说，高层官员不参与飞机研发的日常管理，因此并不知道这次试飞。[212][91]

5.2 军事 | Military

Robert Gates downplayed the significance of the aircraft by questioning how stealthy the J-20 may be, but stated the J-20 would “put some of our capabilities at risk, and we have to pay attention to them, we have to respond appropriately with our own programs.”^[216] The U.S. Director of National Intelligence James R. Clapper testified that the United States knew about the program for a long time and that the test flight was not a surprise.^[217]
【参考译文】罗伯特·盖茨质疑歼-20的隐形能力，淡化了这款飞机的重要性，但他说，歼-20“将使我们的一些能力面临风险，我们必须对此予以关注，我们必须通过自身的项目做出适当的回应”。[216]美国国家情报总监詹姆斯·R·克拉珀作证说，美国很久以前就知道了这个项目，因此试飞并不令人惊讶。[217]

In 2011, Loren B. Thompson (Lexington Institute), echoed by a 2015 RAND Corporation report, felt that J-20’s combination of forward stealth and long-range puts America’s surface assets at risk and that a long-range maritime strike capability may cause the United States more concern than a short-range air-superiority fighter like the F-22.^{[218][219][220]} In its 2011 Annual Report to Congress, the Pentagon described the J-20 as “a platform capable of long-range, penetrating strikes into complex air defense environments.”^[221] A 2012 report by the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission suggests that the United States may have underestimated the speed of development of the J-20 and several other Chinese military development projects.^[222]
【参考译文】2011年，洛伦·B·汤普森（莱克星顿研究所）在2015年兰德公司的一份报告中呼应了他的观点，认为歼-20的前向隐形能力和远程能力使美国的水面资产面临风险，而远程海上打击能力可能比短程空中优势战斗机（如F-22）更令美国担忧。[218][219][220]在2011年提交给国会的年度报告中，五角大楼将歼-20描述为“一种能够在复杂防空环境中进行远程纵深打击的平台”。[221]美国-中国经济和安全评估委员会2012年的一份报告指出，美国可能低估了歼-20和其他几个中国军事发展项目的研发速度。[222]

In the early 2010s, Western observers were not able to reach a consensus on the J-20’s primary role or its specific capabilities. Experts and analysts called into question many of China’s claims and stated it was considered a low observability aircraft but did not fall in the category of a true stealth aircraft based on U.S. Military standards.^{[223][224][225][226][227]}
【参考译文】2010年代初，西方观察家无法就歼-20的主要作用或其具体能力达成共识。专家和分析人士对中国方面的许多说法提出质疑，并表示，虽然歼-20被认为是一种低可探测性飞机，但根据美军标准，它并不属于真正的隐形飞机范畴。[223][224][225][226][227]

After the deployment announcement in 2018, several analysts noted that the experience that the PLAAF will gain with the J-20 would give China a significant edge over India, Japan, and South Korea, which have struggled to design and produce their own fifth-generation fighters on schedule.^[12] However, despite the failure of their indigenous projects, Japan and South Korea would soon operate the imported F-35A in 2019 equipped with better situational awareness and jet propulsion technology, negating this potential technological disparity.^[228][229] United States Marine Corps created a full-scale replica (FSR) of a Chengdu J-20 in December 2018. The replica was spotted parked outside the Air Dominance Center at Savannah/Hilton Head International Airport in Georgia. The United States Marine Corps later confirmed that the aircraft was built for training.^[230]
【参考译文】2018年部署公告发布后，多名分析人士指出，中国空军（PLAAF）在使用歼-20的过程中获得的经验将使中国在印度、日本和韩国等对手面前占据显著优势，因为这些国家一直在努力按时设计和生产自己的第五代战斗机。[12]然而，尽管国产项目失败，但日本和韩国将于2019年开始使用进口的F-35A战斗机，该战斗机配备了更先进的态势感知和喷气推进技术，从而抵消了这一潜在的技术差距。[228][229]2018年12月，美国海军陆战队制造了一架成都歼-20的全尺寸复制品（FSR）。该复制品被发现停放在佐治亚州萨凡纳/希尔顿黑德国际机场的空中优势中心外。美国海军陆战队后来证实，这架飞机是为训练建造的。[230]

By 2019, aviation researchers believed that the progress of J-20 signified that China had surpassed Russia in the application of contemporary aviation technologies such as composite materials, advanced avionics, and long-range weapons systems.^[231][232] According to Justin Bronk of the Royal United Services Institute, the J-20 is one of the examples of how China has transitioned from the dependency of Russian technology to developing indigenous sensors and weapons that are superior to those of Russia; and how China is beginning to build a clear lead over Russia in most aspects of combat aircraft development in the 2020s.^[233]
【参考译文】到2019年，航空研究人员认为，歼-20的进展表明，中国在复合材料、先进航空电子设备和远程武器系统等当代航空技术的应用上已经超越了俄罗斯。[231][232]据英国皇家联合军种研究所的贾斯汀·布朗克称，歼-20是中国从依赖俄罗斯技术转变为开发优于俄罗斯的国产传感器和武器的例证之一；也是中国如何在2020年代的战斗机研发大多数方面开始建立对俄罗斯的明显领先地位的例证之一。[233]

In March 2022, the United States Air Force (USAF) general Kenneth Wilsbach described J-20s were flying professionally and he is “relatively impressed” with the Chinese command and control structure and AEW&C capabilities after confirming two nations had an encounter in South China Sea.^[195][234] In a separate comment, the general mentioned the E-3 Sentry AEW&C aircraft is insufficient for timely detection of the J-20s.^[235] In another press conference, Wilsbach downplayed his earlier remarks, stating that he would not “lose sleep about the J-20”, USAF Chief of Staff Gen. Charles Q. Brown reflected the same sentiment, but added that the United States needs to keep up the innovation pace in the development of sixth-generation fighter technologies to not “lose sleep”.^{[236][237][51]} Gen. Mark D. Kelly, the head of USAF Air Combat Command (ACC) added that the United States knows China is on schedule for its 6th-generation fighter program.^[238]
【参考译文】2022年3月，美国空军（USAF）将军肯尼斯·威尔斯巴赫在确认两国在南中国海相遇后表示，歼-20飞行专业，他对中国的指挥和控制结构以及空中预警与指挥控制能力“印象深刻”。[195][234]在另一则评论中，这位将军提到，E-3“哨兵”空中预警与指挥控制飞机不足以及时发现歼-20。[235]在另一场新闻发布会上，威尔斯巴赫淡化了自己早前的言论，表示他“不会因为歼-20而失眠”，美国空军参谋长查尔斯·Q·布朗将军也表达了同样的看法，但补充说，美国需要保持第六代战斗机技术的创新步伐，以免“失眠”。[236][237][51]美国空军空战司令部（ACC）司令马克·D·凯利将军补充说，美国知道中国正在按计划推进其第六代战斗机项目。[238]

In June 2022, the US Air Force reactivated the 65th Aggressor Squadron, equipped with F-35A to conduct opposing force training and replicate Chinese aircraft threats.^[239][240] Nellis Air Force Base planned to further upgrade its fleet with more F-35s and F-22s to replicate the Chinese fifth-generation fighters.^[241]
【参考译文】2022年6月，美国空军重新组建了第65侵略机中队，并配备了F-35A战斗机，以进行对抗部队训练和模拟中国飞机的威胁。[239][240]内利斯空军基地计划用更多的F-35和F-22战斗机升级其机队，以模拟中国的第五代战斗机。[241]

In July 2024, USAF Major Joshua Campbell of CASI recommended that the USAF evaluate the concept of twin-seat J-20 fighters for future combat systems. Campbell found merit in China’s approach to human-to-machine interaction in an operationally limited (CDO-L) combat environment with information saturation. He believed the twin-seat J-20, with its secondary pilot serving as a control operator for managing collaborative combat aircraft (CCA) and other aircraft in formation, could serve as an inspiration for the F-15EX program and air platforms beyond traditional roles before more advanced AI decision-maker becomes available.^[242]
【参考译文】2024年7月，美国空军学院（CASI）的约书亚·坎贝尔少校建议美国空军评估双座歼-20战斗机在未来作战系统中的概念。坎贝尔认为，中国在信息饱和的作战受限（CDO-L）环境中的人机交互方法有其优点。他认为，双座歼-20的副驾驶员作为控制操作员，负责管理协同作战飞机（CCA）和编队中的其他飞机，这可能在更先进的AI决策者出现之前，为F-15EX项目和超越传统角色的空中平台提供灵感。[242]

5.3 军事媒体 | Defense media

Western sources contribute the idea that J-20 is optimized for anti-access/area denial (A2/AD) engagements, while Chinese sources universally describe J-20 as an air-superiority fighter meant to engage other fighters.^[13] Rod Lee, research director at the China Aerospace Studies Institute of the Air University, believes J-20 is intended to be primarily used for destroying high-value airborne assets, which is an alternative way of establishing air superiority. Supplemental missions may include launching anti-radiation missiles and air-to-ground munitions. Rod Lee believes J-20 has the maneuverability to engage in air superiority combat with other aircraft, but PLAAF has de-emphasized the traditional attrition warfare while advocating the “systems destruction” approach because they believe it is more effective.^[91]
【参考译文】西方消息来源认为，歼-20是为反进入/区域拒止（A2/AD）作战而优化的，而中国方面的消息则普遍将歼-20描述为旨在与其他战斗机交战的制空战斗机。[13]空军大学中国航空航天研究所研究主任罗德·李认为，歼-20主要用于摧毁高价值空中资产，这是建立空中优势的一种替代方式。辅助任务可能包括发射反辐射导弹和空对地弹药。罗德·李认为，歼-20具有与其他飞机进行制空战斗的机动性，但中国空军已经降低了对传统消耗战的重视，而倡导“系统摧毁”的方法，因为他们认为这种方法更有效。[91]

Matthew Jouppi of Aviation Week noted the ill-informed assumptions that existed in defense circles and argued that the United States has not adequately addressed threats posed by the increasing Chinese airpower.^[13]
【参考译文】《航空周刊》的马修·朱皮指出了国防界普遍存在的错误假设，并认为美国没有充分应对中国日益增强的空军力量所带来的威胁。[13]

The visual, physical configuration and stealth shaping have been claimed to be influenced by foreign aircraft, including the F-22, F-35, F-117, MiG 1.44, MiG-31, Rafale, and Eurofighter Typhoon, according to an opinion piece published in The Diplomat by Rick Joe, saying that “if the J-20 did enjoy any of the benefits of espionage in its development, the visible physical configuration and stealth shaping were unlikely to be the recipients of it”. Instead, Joe adds that the J-20’s external physical configuration is a logical development of Chengdu’s previous canard-delta designs: the Chengdu J-9 – particularly the “twin tail, side intake, canard delta” J-9V-II – from the 1960s and 1970s, and the Chengdu J-10. Furthermore, Joe said that stealth shaping is a much more universal and consistent trait that leaves limited room for variety, and that future international designs will likely reflect this.^[120]
【参考译文】根据里克·乔在《外交家》杂志上发表的一篇评论文章，歼-20的视觉效果、物理结构和隐形设计据称受到了包括F-22、F-35、F-117、米格1.44、米格-31、阵风和台风战斗机在内的外国飞机的影响。他说道，“如果歼-20在研发过程中确实享受到了间谍活动的任何好处，那么其明显的物理结构和隐形设计不太可能就是受益之处”。相反，乔补充道，歼-20的外部物理结构是成都飞机公司之前的前掠翼三角翼设计的逻辑发展：即20世纪60年代和70年代的成都歼-9（特别是“双尾、侧进气、前掠翼三角翼”的歼-9V-II）和成都歼-10。此外，乔表示，隐形设计是一种更为普遍和一致的特征，留给多样化的空间有限，未来的国际设计可能会反映出这一点。[120]

According to Rouble Sharma of GlobalData, the development of the J-20 showed a robust pace and displayed the Chinese aviation industry’s in-house research, design, and manufacturing capabilities. The indigenization of critical components such as the jet engines, avionics, radar, and weapons systems helped to fast-track the production rate, and constant tests and upgrades fixed tethering and performance issues between batches. GlobalData estimated that in 2022, the Chengdu J-20 cost USD 100 million per aircraft, and the whole project cost USD $30 billion.^[243]
【参考译文】据GlobalData的鲁布尔·沙玛表示，歼-20的研发进展迅速，展现了中国航空工业内部的研发、设计和制造能力。喷气发动机、航空电子设备、雷达和武器系统等关键部件的本土化生产有助于加快生产速度，而不断的测试和升级解决了批次之间的限制和性能问题。GlobalData估计，2022年，成都歼-20的单价为1亿美元，整个项目的成本为300亿美元。[243]

6. 使用者 | Operators

China【中国】

• People’s Liberation Army Air Force^[93][193]
  【参考译文】中国人民解放军空军
  • 172nd Aviation Regiment, Cangzhou Airbase, Hebei; testing and training unit and second to receive J-20 fighters.^[244]
    【参考译文】河北省沧州空军基地第172航空团；测试和训练单位，是第二个接收歼-20战斗机的单位。[244]
  • 1st Fighter Brigade, Anshan Air Base, Liaoning^[193]
    【参考译文】辽宁省鞍山空军基地第1战斗机旅[193]
  • 5th Fighter Brigade, Guilin Air Base, Guangxi^[193]
    【参考译文】广西壮族自治区桂林空军基地第5战斗机旅[193]
  • 8th Fighter Brigade, Changxing Airbase, Zhejiang^[193]
    【参考译文】浙江省长兴空军基地第8战斗机旅[193]
  • 9th Fighter Brigade, Wuhu Air Base, Anhui
    【参考译文】安徽省芜湖空军基地第9战斗机旅
  • 41st Fighter Brigade, Wuyishan Airbase, Fujian^[193]
    【参考译文】福建省武夷山空军基地第41战斗机旅[193]
  • 56th Fighter Brigade, Zhengzhou Airbase, Henan^[193]
    【参考译文】河南省郑州空军基地第56战斗机旅[193]
  • 97th Fighter Brigade, Dazu Airbase, Chongqing^[193]
    【参考译文】重庆市大足空军基地第97战斗机旅[193]
  • 111th Fighter Brigade, Korla Airbase, Xinjiang^[193]
    【参考译文】新疆维吾尔自治区库尔勒空军基地第111战斗机旅[193]

7. 性能指标 | Specifications

参考资料：清华大学^{[122][13][12][123]}

7.1 基本信息 | General characteristics

• 机组：1人
• 长度：21.2米（69.6英尺）
• 翼展：13.01米（42.68英尺）
• 高度：4.69米（15.40英尺）
• 机翼面积：73.0平方米（786平方英尺）
• 空重：17,000千克（37,479英磅）
• 总重：25,000千克（55,116英磅）
• 最大起飞重量：37,000千克（81,571英磅）
• 燃料容量：12,000千克（26,000磅）内燃油
• 发动机：2台AL-31 FM2^[124][93]后燃涡扇发动机，142千牛顿（32,000英磅力） 带后燃器
• 发动机：2台涡扇-10C^[95][125]后燃涡扇发动机，142—147千牛顿（32,000—33,000英磅力） 带后燃器
• 发动机：2台涡扇-15^[126][127]后燃涡扇发动机，156千牛顿（35,000英磅力） 带后燃器

7.2 性能 | Performance

• 最大速度：2,126千米每小时（1,321英里每小时；1,148节）（最大包线速度）
• 巡航速度：1,600千米每小时（994英里每小时；864节）
• 航程：5,500千米（3,418英里；2,970海里）带两个副油箱
• 战斗航程：2,000千米（1,243英里；1,080海里）
• 升限：20,000米（66,000英尺）
• 过载限制：+9/-3
• 爬升率：304^[128]米每秒（59,800英尺每分钟）
• 翼载：340千克每平方米（69英磅每平方英尺）
• 推重比：1.00 (挂载武器燃油减半时为1.16) 仅限装备涡扇-10C或AF-31FM2时 (预测)

7.3 武器 | Armament

• 武器最大装载能力: 11,000千克（24,000磅）
• 6×内部弹仓挂载点
  • 霹雳-10 短距格斗弹^[129]
  • 霹雳-12 中距弹^[130]
  • 霹雳-15 超视距长程导弹
  • 霹雳-21 长程导弹^[130]
  • 雷石-6 精确制导炸弹
• 4×外部挂载点

7.4 航电 | Avionics

• 1475(KLJ-5)型有源相控阵雷达
• EOTS-86光电瞄准系统(EOTS)^[131]
• EORD-31 红外搜索^[131]
• 光电分布式孔径系统^[132][133]

8. 流行文化

8.1 影视

• 《空天猎》
• 《流浪地球2》：假想的歼-20双座垂直起降版本，类似于F-35B，剧中该型歼-20被称为歼-20C。
• 《长空之王》

8.2 游戏

• 《战地风云4》

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