泰国 / Thailand（全文）- 中英文维基百科词条融合

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0. 概述

辽观注：此标题是我们在搬运、整合过程中添加的。

0.1 文字说明

辽观注：此标题是我们在搬运、整合过程中添加的。

泰王国（泰语：ราชอาณาจักรไทย，皇家转写：Ratcha-anachak Thai），通称泰国（泰语：ประเทศไทย，皇家转写：Prathet Thai，英语Thailand^[注1]），旧称暹罗^{[注 2]}（泰语：สยาม，皇家转写：Sayam）_^[注3]，是东南亚的君主立宪制国家，首都及最大城市为曼谷。泰国国土位于印支半岛（中南半岛）中部，南接暹罗湾和马来西亚，东邻老挝、柬埔寨，西靠缅甸和安达曼海，国土面积51.3万平方公里，人口近7,000万^[5]。

注1：又译“暹逻”，按泰文原文音译则为“暹”。
注2：/ˈtaɪlænd, -lənd/, TYE-land, -⁠lənd; Thai: ประเทศไทย, RTGS: Prathet Thai, pronounced [pratʰêːt tʰaj] ^ⓘ
注3：/saɪˈæm, ˈsaɪæm/, sye-AM, SYE-am; Thai: สยาม, RTGS: sayam, pronounced [sajǎːm]; also spelled Siem, Syâm, or Syâma

泰语民族自11世纪起从今中国西南部南迁。在此之前，孟王国、高棉帝国和马来统治者都曾统治今日泰国的部分领土，为当地带来佛教和印度教文化。迁入今泰国领土的泰人夺得主动权，成为泰国历史和文化的主流群体，建立素可泰王国、兰纳王国和阿瑜陀耶王国等政权。阿瑜陀耶王国在15世纪末进入文化繁荣、社会安定的繁盛时期，在那莱王统治期间步入极盛，但在此后逐步衰退而遭遇缅甸入侵，在1767年暹缅战争中一度灭国。将领郑昭率军收复领土，令暹罗重归统一，于1767年建立吞武里王国。1782年，通銮夺得王位，称拉玛一世，开启延续至今的扎克里王朝的统治。

泰国是近代东南亚唯一幸免于外国殖民的国家，但仍被迫签订多个不平等条约而丧失大片国土。在国王朱拉隆功统治期间，暹罗的政治和社会制度迎来一系列西化改革，把国家变成为现代化君主专制集权国家，但1932年暹罗立宪革命爆发，王室被改行君主立宪制。其后总理銮披汶·颂堪掌握大权，任内推行泰化政策，并将国名更变为泰国，二战战败后改为亲美。冷战时期，泰国成为美国在东南亚的主要盟友，曾主导成立（已解散的）东南亚条约组织（SEATO）。泰国政治环境不甚安定，军方屡次凭借军事政变推翻文人政府，1990年代在王室主持下，虽有不同势力博弈使局势大致平衡，但近现代民主政治发展缓慢，2014年泰国政变以来，泰国正处于军政府统治期，同时正经历民众示威运动^[10]。

Apart from a brief period of parliamentary democracy in the mid-1970s and 1990s, Thailand has periodically alternated between democracy and military rule. Since the 2000s, the country has been in continual political conflict between supporters and opponents of twice-elected Prime Minister of Thailand Thaksin Shinawatra, which resulted in two coups (in 2006 and 2014), along with the establishment of its current constitution, a nominally democratic government after the 2019 Thai general election, and large pro-democracy protests in 2020–2021, which included unprecedented demands to reform the monarchy. Since 2019, it has been nominally a parliamentary constitutional monarchy; in practice, however, structural advantages in the constitution have ensured the military’s continued influence in politics.^[12]
【参考译文】除了20世纪70年代中期和90年代短暂的议会民主时期外，泰国的政治体制周期性地在民主与军政府之间交替。自2000年代以来，泰国一直处于持续的政治冲突之中，冲突双方分别是支持与反对两次当选的泰国总理他信·西那瓦的人士，这导致了两次政变（分别发生在2006年和2014年），以及现行宪法的建立。2019年泰国大选后成立了名义上的民主政府，并在2020年至2021年间发生了大规模的亲民主抗议活动，其中包括前所未有的要求改革君主制的声音。自2019年以来，泰国名义上是一个议会制君主立宪制国家；然而实际上，宪法中的结构性优势确保了军队在政治中的持续影响力。[12]

泰国是东南亚国家联盟的创始成员，被视为中等强国，有着较高的人类发展指数。泰国经济在二战以后快速增长，是新兴工业化国家，为东南亚第二大经济体，依购买力平价计算是世界第20大经济体。制造业、农业和旅游业是泰国经济的重要部门^[11][12]。

0.2 标志及位置

辽观注：此标题是我们在搬运、整合过程中添加的。

0.3 概况表格

辽观注：此标题是我们在搬运、整合过程中添加的。

Anthem:【国歌】 เพลงชาติไทย Phleng Chat Thai “Thai National Anthem”【泰国国歌】 Duration【持续时间】: 45 seconds. 点击链接聆听（无法从中国大陆地区访问） Royal anthem【皇室颂歌】:สรรเสริญพระบารมี Sansoen Phra Barami “Glorify His Prestige”【颂圣歌】 Duration【持续时间】: 1 minute and 8 seconds. 点击链接聆听（无法从中国大陆地区访问）
Capital and largest city【首都及最大城市】	Bangkok[a]【曼谷】 13°48′N 100°33′E （注a：Officially known in Thai as “Krung Thep Maha Nakhon” 参考译文：在泰语中，其正式名称为“กรุงเทพมหานคร”，翻译成中文是“曼谷大都市”。）
Official language and national language 【官方语言和国家语言】	Thai[1]【泰语】
Spoken languages 【日常口语语言】	Central Thai【中部泰语】, Isan【伊桑语（东北部泰语）】, Lanna (Northern Thai)【兰纳语（北部泰语）】, Dambro (Southern Thai)【丹布罗语（南部泰语）】, Karen【卡伦语】, Pattani Malay【北大年马来语】, Bangkok Malay【曼谷马来语】, Teochew【潮州话】, Hokkien【闽南语】
Ethnic groups 【民族族群】	80% Thai 【80% 泰语使用者】 37% Thai (Central Thai) 【37% 使用中部泰语（标准泰语）】 25% Thai Lao (Northeastern Thai) 【25% 使用泰老语（东北部泰语）】 8% Lanna (Northern Thai) 【8% 使用兰纳语（北部泰语）】 8% Dambro (Southern Thai) 【8% 使用丹布罗语（南部泰语）】 2% (Western Thai) 【2% 使用西部泰语】 12% Thai Chinese 【12% 泰华混血（泰国华人后裔，可能使用汉语方言如潮州话或闽南语）】 4% Khmer 【4% 使用高棉语】 4% Malays【4% 使用马来语】
Religion (2023)[2] 【宗教（2023年）】	90% Buddhism【佛教】 5% Islam【伊斯兰教】 2% Christianity【基督宗教】 1% no religion【无宗教】 1% undeclared【未声明】
Demonym(s) 【在英语中对当地居民的称呼】	Thai
Government【政府】	Unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy 【单一制议会君主立宪制】
• Monarch【君主】	Vajiralongkorn【玛哈·哇集拉隆功】
• Prime Minister 【首相（总理）】	Srettha Thavisin【社他·他威信】
Legislature 【立法机构】	National Assembly【众议院】
• Upper house 【上议院】	Senate【参议院】
• Lower house 【下议院】	House of Representatives【众议院】
Formation【构建过程】
• Sukhothai Kingdom	1238–1438
• Ayutthaya Kingdom	1351–1767
• Thonburi Kingdom	1767–1782
• Rattanakosin Kingdom	6 April 1782
• Constitutional monarchy	24 June 1932
• Current constitution	6 April 2017
Area【面积】
• Total【总面积】	513,120 km2 (198,120 sq mi) (50th)（全球排名第50）
• Water (%) 【水域面积】	0.4 (2,230 km2)
Population【人口】
• 2024 estimate 【2024年估计值】	65,975,198[3] (22nd)（全球排名第22）
• 2010 census 【2010年普查值】	64,785,909[4] (21st)（全球排名第21）
• Density 【人口密度】	132.1/km2 (342.1/sq mi) (88th)（全球排名第88）
GDP (PPP) 【国内生产总值（购买力平价）】	2024 estimate【2024年估计值】
• Total【总计】	$1.644 trillion[5] (23rd)【1.644万亿美元[5]（全球第23位）】
• Per capita【人均】	$23,401[5] (74th)【2万3401美元[5]（全球第74位）】
GDP (nominal) 【国内生产总值（名义；按汇率计算）】	2024 estimate【2024年估计值】
• Total【总计】	$548.890 billion[5] (26th)【5488亿9000万美元[5]（全球第26位）】
• Per capita【人均】	$7,812[5] (88th)【7812美元[5]（全球第88位）】
Gini (2021) 【基尼系数】	35.1[6] medium inequality【中度不平等】
HDI (2022) 【人类发展指数】	0.803[7] very high (66th)【极高（全球第66位）】
Currency【货币】	Thai baht (฿) (THB)【泰铢】
Time zone【时区】	UTC+7 (ICT)【东七区】
Date format 【时间格式】	dd/mm/yyyy (BE)
Driving side 【行驶方位】	left【左侧】
Calling code 【国际电话区号】	+66
ISO 3166 code 【国际国家、地区和区划代码】	TH
Internet TLD 【互联网顶级域名】	.th.ไทย

1. 国名 | Etymology

The signature of King Mongkut (r. 1851–1868) reads SPPM (Somdet Phra Poramenthra Maha) Mongkut Rex Siamensium (Mongkut, King of the Siamese). This usage of the name in the country’s first international treaty gave the name Siam official status, until 24 June 1939 when it was changed to Thailand.^[25] Thailand was briefly renamed Siam from 1946 to 1948, after which it again reverted to Thailand.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】拉玛四世国王蒙固（在位1851–1868年）的签名写为SPPM（Somdet Phra Poramenthra Maha）Mongkut Rex Siamensium（蒙固，暹罗之王）。这个名称在泰国首个国际条约中的使用给予了“暹罗”这个名字官方地位，直到1939年6月24日才改为“泰国”。[25]从1946年到1948年，泰国短暂地重新命名为“暹罗”，之后再次改回“泰国”。[需要引证]

泰国的正式全称为“泰王国”（泰语：ราชอาณาจักรไทย，皇家转写：Ratcha Anachak Thai /râːt.tɕʰā ʔāːnāːtɕàk tʰāj/^ⓘ），其中“ราช”表示“国王”、“อาณาจักร”意为“领土”、而“ไทย”则是主体民族泰族的族名。在过去，泰国一直以“暹”（泰语：สยาม，皇家转写：Sayam）作为国名。銮披汶·颂堪元帅在1939年6月23日至1945年9月8日期间，将暹罗改称“泰国”（泰语：ประเทศไทย，皇家转写：Prathet Thai），带有泛泰民族主义色彩。1945年9月8日，泰国复称为“暹王国”。1949年5月11日，暹罗正式更名为“泰王国”。

Thailand^[d] was known by outsiders prior to 1939 as Siam.^[e] According to George Cœdès, the word Thai (ไทย) means ‘free man’ in the Thai language, “differentiating the Thai from the natives encompassed in Thai society as serfs”.^[15]: 197 According to Chit Phumisak, Thai (ไท) simply means ‘people’ or ‘human being’; his investigation shows that some rural areas used the word “Thai” instead of the usual Thai word khon (คน) for people.^[16] According to Michel Ferlus, the ethnonyms Thai-Tai (or Thay-Tay) would have evolved from the etymon *k(ə)ri: ‘human being’.^[f][18]
【参考译文】在1939年之前，泰国[d] 被外界称为暹罗[e]。根据乔治·科德斯的说法，泰语中的“泰”（ไทย）一词意指“自由人”，“将泰国人与在泰国社会中作为农奴的本地人区分开来”。[15]: 197  根据齐·普米萨克的观点，“泰”（ไท）一词简单来说就是“人”或“人类”；他的研究显示，一些农村地区使用“泰”这个词代替了泰语中通常表示人的词汇“khon”（คน）。[16] 根据米歇尔·费鲁斯的研究，人种名称泰-台（或Thay-Thay）可能从词根*k(ə)ri: “人类”演变而来。[f][18]

注d：Thai: ประเทศไทย, RTGS: Prathet Thai, pronounced [pratʰêːt tʰaj] ^ⓘ
注e：Thai: สยาม, RTGS: sayam, pronounced [sajǎːm]; also spelled Siem, Syâm, or Syâma
注f：Through the following chain: *kəri: > *kəli: > *kədi:/*kədaj > *di:/*daj > *daj^A (Proto-Southwestern Tai) > tʰaj^A2 (in Siamese and Lao) or > taj^A2 (in the other Southwestern and Central Tai languages classified by Li Fangkuei).^[17] Ferlus work is based on simple rules of phonetic change observable in the Sinosphere and studied for the most part by William H. Baxter (1992).
【参考译文】通过以下的语音变化链：*kəri: > *kəli: > kədi:/kədaj > di:/daj > *dajA（原始西南泰语）> tʰajA2（在暹罗语和老挝语中）或> tajA2（在李方桂分类的其他西南和中泰语中）。[17] 费鲁斯的工作基于在汉文化圈中可观察到的简单语音变化规则，这些规则大部分由威廉·H·贝克斯特（1992年）进行了研究。

泰国国名中的“泰”为泰族之族名。“泰”（ไทย）一词的含义，根据法国东南亚学家乔治·科埃德斯的研究，为“自由民”之意，盖因泰傣民族南下移居至今属于泰国的土地后，当地操孟-高棉语的原住民以农奴为主，和泰人不同^[13]:197。另有泰国学者反驳该结论，据其调查，“泰”一词在一些乡村地区为“人”（คน khon）之意；法国语言学家米歇尔·费吕则推论出该词的语源演变，其原始形式为*k(ə)ri:，意为人，并依照如下次序演变：*kəri: > *kəli: > *kədi:/*kədaj > *di:/*daj > *daj （原始西南傣语） > tʰaj（即泰语和老挝语中之“泰”）或 > taj（即其他傣语中之“傣”）^[14]。

Thais often refer to their country using the polite form prathet Thai (Thai: ประเทศไทย). They also use the more colloquial term mueang Thai (Thai: เมืองไทย) or simply Thai; the word mueang, archaically referring to a city-state, is commonly used to refer to a city or town as the centre of a region. Ratcha Anachak Thai (Thai: ราชอาณาจักรไทย) means ‘kingdom of Thailand’ or ‘kingdom of Thai’. Etymologically, its components are: ratcha (Sanskrit: राजन्, rājan, ‘king, royal, realm’), ana- (Pali āṇā ‘authority, command, power’, itself from the Sanskrit आज्ञा, ājñā, of the same meaning), and -chak (from Sanskrit चक्र cakra- ‘wheel’, a symbol of power and rule). The Thai National Anthem (Thai: เพลงชาติ), written by Luang Saranupraphan during the patriotic 1930s, refers to the Thai nation as prathet Thai (Thai: ประเทศไทย). The first line of the national anthem is: prathet thai ruam lueat nuea chat chuea thai (Thai: ประเทศไทยรวมเลือดเนื้อชาติเชื้อไทย), ‘Thailand is founded on blood and flesh’.^[19]
【参考译文】泰国人通常使用礼貌形式的“prathet Thai”（泰语：ประเทศไทย）来称呼他们的国家。他们也会使用更加口语化的术语“mueang Thai”（泰语：เมืองไทย）或者简称为“Thai”。其中“mueang”一词，原本指代城邦，现在常用以指代区域中心的城市或城镇。”Ratcha Anachak Thai”（泰语：ราชอาณาจักรไทย）意为“泰国王国”或“泰族王国”。从词源学的角度看，它的组成部分是：“ratcha”（源自梵语राजन्，rājan，意为“国王，皇家，领域”），“ana-”（源自巴利语āṇā‘权威，命令，力量’，其本身源自梵语आज्ञा，ājñā，具有相同含义）以及“-chak”（源自梵语चक्रcakra-‘轮’，象征权力和统治）。泰国国歌（泰语：เพลงชาติ），由Luang Saranupraphan在充满爱国情怀的1930年代创作，提及泰国国家时使用的是“prathet Thai”（泰语：ประเทศไทย）。国歌的第一行歌词是：“prathet thai ruam lueat nuea chat chuea thai”（泰语：ประเทศไทยรวมเลือดเนื้อชาติเชื้อไทย），意为“泰国建立在泰族的血肉之上”。

泰国的旧称“暹罗”根据《明史》所载，系为“暹罗斛”之简称，“暹”（泰语：สยาม，皇家转写：Sayam）或指古国素万那普，“罗斛”指另一古国罗涡。两国于十四世纪并合为大城王国，因而被中国古籍以组合词“暹罗斛”或“暹罗”代指之。“暹”一词的来源众说纷纭，一说来自于梵语词汇“श्याम”（Śyāma），意为“暗色”^[15]；或来自于巴利文的“suvaṇṇabhūmi”，意为“黄金之地”（此名后来作为曼谷新国际机场名）；也有说法称来自于孟语词汇“ရာမည”（rhmañña），意为“外地人”。中文古籍的称呼“暹”被葡萄牙传教士转写为Siam，成为西方通用的称呼。“暹”在蒙固国王统治时期定为正式国号^[16]，也被近代中文以“暹罗”对应之。

The former name Siam may have originated from Sanskrit श्याम (śyāma, ‘dark’)^[16] or Mon ရာမည (rhmañña, ‘stranger’), probably the same root as Shan and Assam.^[20] The word Śyâma is possibly not the true origin, but a pre-designed deviation from its proper, original meaning.^[21][22] Another theory is the name derives from the Chinese calling this region ‘Xian’.^[g][23]: 8 The ancient Khmers used the word Siam to refer to people settled in the west Chao Phraya River valley surrounding the ancient city of Nakhon Pathom in the present-day central Thailand; it may probably originate from the name of Lord Krishna, which also called Shyam, as in the Wat Sri Chum Inscription, dated 13th century CE, mentions Phra Maha Thera Sri Sattha [th] came to restore Phra Pathommachedi at the city of Lord Krishna (Nakhon Pathom) in the early era of the Sukhothai Kingdom.^[24]
【参考译文】暹罗这个名字可能来源于梵语 श्याम (śyāma, 意为“深色”)[16] 或者孟语 ရာမည (rhmañña, 意为“陌生人”)，这可能与掸族（Shan）和阿萨姆（Assam）的名称有相同的词根。[20]然而，Śyâma这个词可能并非真正的来源，而是从其原意有意偏离的结果。[21][22]另一种理论认为，这个名字源于中国人称这片区域为‘Xian’。[g][23]: 8  古代的高棉人使用“暹”这个词来指代定居在昭披耶河西部流域的人们，那里环绕着现今泰国中部的古城北碧府。它可能源于对奎师那（Krishna）的称呼，因为在公元13世纪的Wat Sri Chum碑文中提到，圣僧Sri Sattha [th] 前往奎师那（北碧府）之城修复Phra Pathommachedi佛塔，这是素可泰王国早期的事迹。[24]

2. 历史 | History

Main article: History of Thailand / 主条目：泰国历史

2.1 史前和来源 | Prehistory and origins

Main article: Prehistoric Thailand【主条目：史前的泰国】

See also: History of Thailand and Tai peoples【参见：”泰国的历史“和”泰人“词条】

There is evidence of continuous human habitation in present-day Thailand from 20,000 years ago to the present day.^[26]: 4 The earliest evidence of rice growing is dated at 2,000 BCE.^[27]: 4 Areas comprising what is now Thailand participated in the Maritime Jade Road, as ascertained by archeological research. The trading network existed for 3,000 years, between 2000 BCE to 1000 CE.^{[28][29][30][31]} Bronze appeared c. 1,250–1,000 BCE.^[27]: 4 The site of Ban Chiang in northeast Thailand currently ranks as the earliest known centre of copper and bronze production in Southeast Asia.^[32] Iron appeared around 500 BCE.^[27]: 5 The Kingdom of Funan was the first and most powerful Southeast Asian kingdom at the time (2nd century BCE).^[26]: 5 The Mon people established the principalities of Dvaravati and Kingdom of Hariphunchai in the 6th century. The Khmer people established the Khmer empire, centred in Angkor, in the 9th century.^[26]: 7 Tambralinga, a Malay state controlling trade through the Malacca Strait, rose in the 10th century.^[26]: 5 The Indochina peninsula was heavily influenced by the culture and religions of India from the time of the Kingdom of Funan to that of the Khmer Empire.^[33]
【参考译文】有证据表明，从2万年前至今，在现今泰国境内存在着连续的人类居住史。[26]: 4  最早的水稻种植证据可追溯至公元前2000年。[27]: 4  根据考古研究证实，现今泰国的地域参与了长达3000年的海上玉石之路贸易网络，时间跨度从公元前2000年至公元1000年。[28][29][30][31] 青铜大约在公元前1250至1000年间出现。[27]: 4  位于泰国东北部的班清遗址目前被认为是东南亚最早的铜和青铜生产中心。[32] 铁器大约在公元前500年左右开始出现。[27]: 5  扶南王国是当时最早且最强大的东南亚王国，出现在公元前2世纪。[26]: 5  蒙族人在6世纪建立了陀罗钵地（Dvaravati）和哈里奔猜王国（Kingdom of Hariphunchai）。吴哥为中心的高棉帝国于9世纪由高棉人民建立。[26]: 7  控制马六甲海峡贸易的马来国家淡马锡（Tambralinga）在10世纪兴起。[26]: 5  从扶南王国时代到高棉帝国时期，印度支那半岛深受印度文化和宗教的影响。[33]

The Thai people are of the Tai ethnic group, characterized by common linguistic roots.^[34]: 2 Chinese chronicles first mention the Tai peoples in the 6th century BCE. While there are many assumptions regarding the origin of Tai peoples, David K. Wyatt, a historian of Thailand, argued that their ancestors who at present inhabit Laos, Thailand, Myanmar, India, and China came from the Điện Biên Phủ area between the 5th and the 8th century.^[34]: 6 Thai people began migrating into present-day Thailand gradually from the 6th to 11th century, which Mon and Khmer people occupied at the time.^[35] Thus Thai culture was influenced by Indian, Mon, and Khmer cultures.^[36]: 203 Tai people intermixed with various ethnic and cultural groups in the region, resulting in many groups of present-day Thai people.^[h] Genetic evidences suggested that ethnolinguistics could not accurately predict the origins of the Thais.^[37][38][39] Sujit Wongthes argued that Thai is not a race or ethnicity but a culture group.^[40]
【参考译文】泰人属于泰族民族群体，其特征在于共同的语言根源。[34]: 2  中国的编年史首次提及泰族人民是在公元前6世纪。关于泰族人民的起源有许多假设，但泰国历史学家David K. Wyatt指出，目前居住在老挝、泰国、缅甸、印度和中国的泰族祖先，可能是在5至8世纪期间从奠边府地区迁徙而来。[34]: 6  泰族人民从6世纪至11世纪逐渐迁入现今的泰国领土，当时这里主要由孟族和高棉族人居住。[35]因此，泰国文化受到了印度、孟族和高棉文化的影响。[36]: 203  泰族人民与该地区的各种民族和文化群体融合，形成了现今众多的泰族人群体。[h] 遗传学证据表明，仅凭语言族群无法准确预测泰人的起源。[37][38][39] Sujit Wongthes认为，泰人不是一个种族或民族，而是一个文化群体。[40]

According to French historian George Cœdès, “The Thai first enter history of Farther India in the eleventh century with the mention of Syam slaves or prisoners of war in Champa epigraphy”, and “in the twelfth century, the bas-reliefs of Angkor Wat” where “a group of warriors” are described as Syam,^{[15]: 190–191, 194–195} though Cham accounts do not indicate the origins of Syam or what ethnic group they belonged to.^[41] The origins and ethnicity of the Syam remain unclear, with some literature suggesting that Syam refers to the Shan people, the Bru people, or the Brau people.^[41][42] However, mainland Southeast Asian sources from before the fourteenth century primarily used the word Syam as an ethnonym, referring to those who belonged to a separate cultural category different from the Khmer, Cham, Bagan, or Mon. This contrasts with the Chinese sources, where Xian was used as a toponym.^[41]
【参考译文】根据法国历史学家乔治·科德斯的说法，“泰人最初在远印度的历史记录中出现于11世纪，当时占婆的碑文中提到了暹罗的奴隶或战俘”，以及“12世纪的吴哥窟浮雕”中描述的一群战士被称为暹罗。[15]: 190–191, 194–195  然而，占婆的记载并未指出暹罗的起源或他们所属的民族。[41] 暹罗的起源和民族属性仍然模糊不清，一些文献提出暹罗可能指的是掸族、布鲁族或布拉族。[41][42] 然而，14世纪以前的东南亚大陆资料主要将“暹”作为一个族称，指的是与高棉、占婆、蒲甘或孟族不同的文化类别的人。这与中国资料形成对比，其中“暹”被用作地名。[41]

2.2 早期的泰人联盟城邦：（公元前691年 – 公元13世纪）| Early Tai confederate cities: (691 BCE – 13th century CE)

See also: Initial states of Thailand and Lan Na【另见：泰国初期国家 和 兰纳（Lan Na）】

Theoretically, Tai-Kadai-speaking people formed as early as the 12th century BCE in the middle of the Yangtze basin. Some groups later migrated south to Guangxi.^[43] However, after several bloody centuries against Chinese influence in Guangxi from the 333 BCE-11th centuries, hundreds of thousands of Tais were killed,^{[44]: 5 [45]: 193, 239–249} thus, Tai people began to move southwestward along the rivers and over the lower passes into the mountain north of Southeast Asia and river valleys in present-day Assam of India.^[46][47] Some evidence indicates that the ancestors of Tai people migrated en masse southwestwards out of Yunnan only after the 1253 Mongol invasion of Dali, but not generally accepted.^[48]: 38
【参考译文】理论上，说台-卡岱语系的人群早在公元前12世纪就在长江流域中部形成。一些群体后来向南迁移到广西。[43]然而，在公元前333年至11世纪的几个血腥世纪中，广西的泰人与中华文化圈进行对抗，数十万泰人被杀，[44]: 5 [45]: 193, 239–249  因此，泰人开始沿河流向西南迁移，穿过较低的山口进入东南亚北部的山区和现今印度阿萨姆邦的河谷地区。[46][47]有证据表明，泰人的祖先在1253年蒙古入侵大理之后才大规模向西南方向迁出云南，但这并不是广泛接受的观点。[48]: 38 

Tais defeated indigenous tribes and emerged as the new power in the new region, several Tai city-states were established, scattered from Điện Biên Phủ in present-day northwestern Vietnam and highland Southeast Asia to northeastern India.^[49][50][51] According to the Simhanavati legend given in several chronicles, the first Tai city-state in northern Thailand, Singhanavati, was found around the 7th century;^{[52]: 5, 9} however, several modern geology and archaeology studies found that its center, Yonok Nahaphan, dates from 691 BCE–545 CE,^{[52]: 7 [53][54][55]} coinciding roughly with the establishment of Shan States, another Tai’s federated principalities in the present-day northeast Myanmar.^{[56][57][58][59]} as well as Muang Sua (Luang Prabang) in the east.^[60][61] After Singhanavati was submerged below Chiang Saen Lake due to an earthquake in 545,^[53][55][62] the survivors then founded a new seat at Wieng–Prueksha [th], the kingdom lasted for another 93 years.^[63]
【参考译文】泰人击败了当地部落，成为新地区的新兴势力，建立了若干泰人城邦，分散在现今越南西北部的奠边府和东南亚高地到印度东北部。[49][50][51]根据《Simhanavati传说》中多个编年史的记载，泰国北部的第一个泰人城邦Singhanavati大约建立于7世纪；[52]: 5, 9  然而，现代地质学和考古学研究发现其中心Yonok Nahaphan的历史可以追溯至公元前691年至公元545年，[52]: 7 [53][54][55] 这大致与掸邦诸国的建立时间相吻合，后者是现今缅甸东北部的另一泰人联合公国。[56][57][58][59] 以及东部的Muang Sua（琅勃拉邦）。[60][61]545年，Singhanavati因地震而沉没于清盛湖之下，[53][55][62] 幸存者随后在Wieng-Prueksha [th]建立了新的中心，该王国又延续了93年。[63]

In addition to Singhanavati, another northern principality probably related to the Tai people, Ngoenyang, was established as the successor of Singhanavati in 638 by Lavachakkaraj [th], also centered in Wieng–Prueksha [th] (present-day Mae Sai District, Chiang Rai).^[23]: 8 Its seat was moved to Chiang Mai in 1262 by King Mangrai, which considered the foundation of the Lan Na kingdom. Mangrai unified the surrounding area and also created a network of states through political alliances to the east and north of the Mekong. His dynasty would rule the kingdom continuously for the next two centuries.^[23]: 8 Lan Na expanded its territory southward and annexed the Mon Hariphunchai of Dvaravati in 1292.^[64]: 208
【参考译文】除了Singhanavati，另一个可能与泰人有关的北方公国Ngoenyang于638年由Lavachakkaraj [th]建立，作为Singhanavati的继承者，同样以Wieng-Prueksha [th]（现今清莱府湄赛县）为中心。[23]: 8  1262年，由国王Mangrai将首都迁至清迈，被视为兰纳王国的奠基。Mangrai统一了周边地区，并通过湄公河东岸和北岸的政治联盟网络创建了一系列国家。他的王朝接下来的两个世纪持续统治这个王国。[23]: 8  兰纳向南扩张领土，于1292年吞并了孟族的Hariphunchai（陀罗钵地）。[64]: 208 

In the late 10 century, Tai people began to migrate further south to the present-day upper central Thailand.^{[65]: 46–9, 83–6} Around the 1100s period, several cities in this area, such as Songkwae, Sawankhalok, and Chakangrao, were ruled by the Tai people, and they eventually launched several battles against the pre-existing Mon of Lavo, who had been falling under Chenla and Khmer influences since the 7th century, thus bringing the establishment of the Tai people’s independent state, Sukhothai Kingdom, in the upper Chao Phraya River valley in 1238.^{[34]: 52–3}
【参考译文】在10世纪末期，泰人开始进一步向南迁移到现今泰国中部上游地区。[65]: 46–9, 83–6  大约在1100年左右，该地区的几个城市，如Songkwae、Sawankhalok和Chakangrao，都被泰人统治，他们最终对已存在的受真腊和高棉影响的陀罗钵地（Lavo）孟族发起了几场战役，这最终促成了泰人在昭披耶河上游流域独立国家——素可泰王国的建立，时间为1238年。[34]: 52–3 

The earliest conflict between Tai people and the preexisting ethnics was recorded in the mid-4th century when the ruler of Singhanavati, Pangkharat [th], forcibly lost the seat at Yonok to King Khom from Umongasela (present-day Fang). He then fled to Vieng Si Tuang (เวียงศรีทวง; present-day Wiang Phang Kham, Mae Sai district) but had to send tributes to Yonok annually until his son, Phrom, took back Yonok and expelled King Khom from Umongasela.^[66][67][68] Phrom also marched the troops south to occupy Chakangrao from the enemy as well as founding the city of Songkwae.^[66] Some historians suggest that Lavo‘s capital, Lopburi, was once seized by Phrom.^[66] In contrast, Tai people instead established relationships with Siamese Mon via royal intermarriages.^{[65]: 46–9, 83–6}
【参考译文】泰人与当地原有民族之间的最早冲突记录可追溯至4世纪中期，当时Singhanavati的统治者Pangkharat [th]被迫将Yonok的统治权交给了来自Umongasela（现今方县）的Khom国王。Pangkharat逃往Vieng Si Tuang（เวียงศรีทวง；现今清莱府湄赛县的Wiang Phang Kham），但不得不每年都向Yonok进贡，直到他的儿子Phrom夺回Yonok并将Khom国王逐出Umongasela。[66][67][68] Phrom还率领部队南下占领了敌人的Chakangrao，并建立了Songkwae城。[66]一些历史学家认为，陀罗钵地的首都罗勇（Lopburi）曾一度被Phrom占领。[66]相比之下，泰人通过皇室联姻与暹罗孟族建立了关系。[65]: 46–9, 83–6 

2.3 孟族与陀罗钵地王国：（公元5世纪 – 公元13世纪）| Mon and Lavo Kingdoms: (5th century CE – 13th century CE)

See also: Mon people, Thai people, Mon kingdoms, and Lavo Kingdom
【另见：孟族人、泰族人、孟族王国、以及陀罗钵地王国】

As is generally known, the present-day Thai people were previously called Siamese before the country was renamed Thailand in the mid-20th century.^[16] Several genetic studies published in the 21st century suggest that the so-called Siamese people (central Thai) might have had Mon origins since their genetic profiles are more closely related to the Mon people in Myanmar than the Tais in southern China,^[37] and they probably later became Tais via cultural diffusion after the arriving of Tai people from the north around the 8th–10th centuries.^[51][69][70] This is also reflected in the language since over half of the vocabulary in the central Thai language is derived from or borrowed from the Mon language as well as Pali and Sanskrit.^[69][71] Moreover, the Jinakalamali chronicle of Tai’s Lan Na also called the southern region occupied by the Mon Haripuñjaya of Dvaravati as Shyam Pradesh (lit. ’the land of Siam people’), which indicates that the ancient Siamese and the Mon people in central Thailand were probably the same ethnolinguistic group.^[72]
【参考译文】正如广为人知的那样，在20世纪中期泰国改名之前，现今的泰人曾被称为暹罗人。21世纪出版的几项遗传学研究表明，所谓的暹罗人（中部泰国人）可能源于孟人，因为他们的遗传特征与缅甸的孟人更为接近，而不是中国南部的泰人。[37]据信，在大约8至10世纪北方泰人的到来之后，他们可能通过文化扩散逐渐成为了泰人。[51][69][70]这一点也反映在语言上，因为中部泰语中超过一半的词汇来源于或借用了孟语，以及巴利语和梵语。[69][71]此外，台族兰纳的《金那迦罗摩里编年史》也将孟人哈里普温加雅（Dvaravati）所占据的南方区域称为Shyam Pradesh（字面意思是“暹罗人的土地”），这表明古代暹罗人和中部泰国的孟人可能属于同一民族语言群体。[72]

The earliest evidence to mention the Siam people are stone inscriptions found in Angkor Borei of Funan (K.557 and K.600), dated 661 CE, the slave’s name is mentioned as “Ku Sayam” meaning “Sayam female slaves” (Ku is a prefix used to refer to female slaves in the pre-Angkorian era), and the Takéo inscriptions (K.79) written in 682 during the reign of Bhavavarman II of Chenla also mention Siam Nobel: Sāraṇnoya Poña Sayam, which was transcribed into English as: the rice field that was given to the poña (noble rank) who was called Sayam (Siam).^[73] The Song Huiyao Jigao (960–1279) indicate Siamese people settled in the west central Thailand and their state was called Xiān guó (Chinese: 暹國), while the eastern plain belonged to the Mon of Lavo (Chinese: 羅渦國),^[74] who later fell under the Chenla and Khmer hegemony around the 7th–9th centuries.^[75] Those Mon political entities, which also included Haripuñjaya in the north and several city-states in the northeast, are collectively called Dvaravati. However, the states of Siamese Mon and Lavo were later merged via the royal intermarriage and became Ayutthaya Kingdom in the mid-14th century,^[74] while the southwestern Isan principalities, centered in Phanom Rung and Phimai, later pledged allegiance to Siamese’s Ayutthaya during the reign of Borommarachathirat II (r. 1424–1448).^[76] The remaining principal city-states in Isan region became Lan Xang around 1353 after the twin cities of Muang Sua (Luang Prabang) and Vieng Chan Vieng Kham (Vientiane) became independent following the death of the Sukhothai king Ram Khamhaeng.^[77]: 51
【参考译文】最早提及暹罗人的证据是在扶南的盎格鲁博雷（Angkor Borei）发现的石碑（编号K.557和K.600），其日期为公元661年，其中提到了一个名叫“Ku Sayam”的奴隶，意为“暹罗女奴”（Ku是前吴哥时代用于指代女性奴隶的前缀）。塔克奥的碑文（编号K.79），在陈罗的婆婆王二世（Bhavavarman II）统治时期，即公元682年书写，也提到了暹罗贵族：Sāraṇnoya Poña Sayam，英语转译为：赐予名为暹罗（Siam）的贵族（poña）的稻田。[73]《宋徽要辑稿》（960-1279）指出暹罗人定居在泰国中部西部，他们的国家被称为Xiān guó（暹国），而东部平原属于罗窝的孟人，[74]后者后来在7至9世纪间落入了陈罗和高棉的霸权之下。[75]这些孟人的政治实体，包括北部的哈里普温加雅和东北部的几个城邦，统称为Dvaravati。然而，暹罗孟和罗窝的国家后来通过皇室联姻合并，于14世纪中期形成了阿育陀耶王国，[74]而依善西南部的城邦，以法农荣和披迈为中心，后来在博罗麻腊差提拉特二世（统治时期1424-1448年）统治期间宣誓效忠暹罗的阿育陀耶。[76]依善地区剩余的主要城邦在1353年左右形成了澜沧王国，当时双城穆昂苏阿（琅勃拉邦）和维恩昌维恩卡姆（万象）在素可泰国王蓝甘亨去世后独立。[77]: 51 

According to the Wat Kud Tae inscription (K.1105), dated c. 7th century, during the period that the eastern Mon entity, Lavo, was strongly influenced by the Chenla, the Siamese Mon in the west also established a royal intermarriage with Chenla as Sri Chakatham, prince of Sambhuka (ศามภูกะ, in the present-day Ratchaburi province), married to a princess of Isanavarman I, and two mandalas then became an ally.^[78] After Chenla sieged Funan and moved the center to Angkor, both Siamese Mon and the Angkorian eventually marched the troops to attack Vijaya of Champa in 1201 during the reign of Jayavarman VII, as recorded in the Cho-Dinh inscription (C.3).^[79]
【参考译文】根据大约7世纪的Wat Kud Tae碑文（编号K.1105），在东孟实体罗窝（Lavo）受到陈罗强烈影响的时期，西部的暹罗孟人也与陈罗建立了皇室联姻关系。斯里查卡坦（Sri Chakatham），三菩喀（Sambhuka，位于今日叻丕府）的王子，娶了伊沙那跋摩一世（Isanavarman I）的一位公主，两个曼达拉（mandala，古代印度宗教中的宇宙模型，这里可能指政治联盟或势力范围）因此成为盟友。[78]

2.4 素可泰王国（公元1238年—14世纪）| Sukhothai Kingdom (1238 CE – 14th century CE)

Main article: Sukhothai Kingdom【主条目：素可泰王国】

After the decline of the Khmer Empire and Kingdom of Pagan in the early 13th century, various states thrived in their place. The domains of Tai people existed from the northeast of present-day India to the north of present-day Laos and to the Malay Peninsula.^{[34]: 38–9} During the 13th century, Tai people had already settled in the core land of Dvaravati and Lavo Kingdom to Nakhon Si Thammarat in the south. There are, however, no records detailing the arrival of the Tais.^{[34]: 50–1}
【参考译文】在13世纪初，随着高棉帝国和蒲甘王国的衰落，多个新的国家在其废墟上崛起。泰人居住的领域从现今印度东北部延伸到老挝北部，直至马来半岛。[34]: 38–9  到了13世纪，泰人已经在Dvaravati和Lavo王国的核心地带，一直到南部的那空是贪玛叻地区定居下来。然而，关于泰人到达的具体记录并不详尽。[34]: 50–1

Around 1240, Pho Khun Bang Klang Hao, a local Tai ruler, rallied the people to rebel against the Khmer. He later crowned himself the first king of Sukhothai Kingdom in 1238.^{[34]: 52–3} Mainstream Thai historians count Sukhothai as the first kingdom of Thai people. Sukhothai expanded furthest during the reign of Ram Khamhaeng (r. 1279–1298). However, it was mostly a network of local lords who swore fealty to Sukhothai, not directly controlled by it.^{[34]: 55–6} He is believed have invented Thai script and Thai ceramics were an important export in his era. Sukhothai embraced Theravada Buddhism in the reign of Maha Thammaracha I (1347–1368).
【参考译文】大约在1240年，当地泰人首领Pho Khun Bang Klang Hao召集民众反抗高棉统治。随后，他在1238年自立为王，建立了素可泰王国。[34]: 52–3  主流的泰国历史学家将素可泰视为泰人首个王国。在兰甘亨王（Ram Khamhaeng，统治期1279–1298年）时期，素可泰的疆域达到鼎盛。不过，它更像是一个由地方领主组成的网络，这些领主向素可泰宣誓效忠，而非直接受其控制。[34]: 55–6  人们普遍认为，兰甘亨王发明了泰国文字，且在他的时代，泰国陶瓷成为重要的出口商品。在Maha Thammaracha I（1347–1368年在位）统治下，素可泰王国接受了上座部佛教。

2.5 阿育陀耶王国（1351年—1767年）| Ayutthaya Kingdom (1351–1767)

Main article: Ayutthaya Kingdom【主条目：阿育陀耶王国】

According to the most widely accepted version of its origin, the Ayutthaya Kingdom rose from the earlier, nearby Lavo Kingdom and Suvarnabhumi with Uthong as its first king. Ayutthaya was a patchwork of self-governing principalities and tributary provinces owing allegiance to the King of Ayutthaya under the mandala system.^[80]: 355 Its initial expansion was through conquest and political marriage. Before the end of the 15th century, Ayutthaya invaded the Khmer Empire three times and sacked its capital Angkor.^[81]: 26 Ayutthaya then became a regional power in place of the Khmer. Constant interference of Sukhothai effectively made it a vassal state of Ayutthaya and it was finally incorporated into the kingdom. Borommatrailokkanat brought about bureaucratic reforms which lasted into the 20th century and created a system of social hierarchy called sakdina, where male commoners were conscripted as corvée labourers for six months a year.^[82]: 107 Ayutthaya was interested in the Malay Peninsula, but failed to conquer the Malacca Sultanate which was supported by the Chinese Ming dynasty.^{[26]: 11, 13}
【参考译文】根据最广泛接受的起源版本，阿育陀耶王国是从其邻近的前Lavo王国和Suvarnabhumi地区崛起的，乌通（Uthong）是其首位国王。阿育陀耶是一个由自我管理的诸侯国和向阿育陀耶国王宣誓效忠的附属省份组成的拼凑体，这些地区遵循曼陀罗体系。[80]: 355  它最初通过征服和政治婚姻的方式扩张。在15世纪末之前，阿育陀耶三次入侵高棉帝国并掠夺其首都吴哥。[81]: 26  阿育陀耶随后取代高棉成为区域强国。素可泰王国因不断受到阿育陀耶的干预，实际上成为了其附庸国，并最终被并入王国版图。博罗马特莱洛卡纳特（Borommatrailokkanat）实施的官僚改革持续影响到了20世纪，并创建了一种名为“萨克迪纳”（sakdina）的社会等级制度，在该制度下，男性平民每年需被征召为劳役六个月。[82]: 107  阿育陀耶对马来半岛感兴趣，但未能征服受中国明朝支持的马六甲苏丹国。[26]: 11, 13 

European contact and trade started in the early-16th century, with the envoy of Portuguese duke Afonso de Albuquerque in 1511. Portugal became an ally and ceded some soldiers to King Rama Thibodi II.^[83] The Portuguese were followed in the 17th century by the French, Dutch, and English. Rivalry for supremacy over Chiang Mai and the Mon people pitted Ayutthaya against the Burmese Kingdom. Several wars with its ruling Taungoo dynasty starting in the 1540s in the reign of Tabinshwehti and Bayinnaung were ultimately ended with the capture of the capital in 1570.^{[82]: 146–7} Then was a brief period of vassalage to Burma until Naresuan proclaimed independence in 1584.^[23]: 11
【参考译文】欧洲的接触和贸易始于16世纪初，始于1511年葡萄牙公爵阿方索·德·阿尔布奎克（Afonso de Albuquerque）的使节访问。葡萄牙成为盟友，并向拉玛提波蒂二世（King Rama Thibodi II）提供了一些士兵。[83] 在17世纪，法国、荷兰和英国相继而来。争夺清迈和孟人的霸权使得阿育陀耶与缅甸王国产生了冲突。从1540年代开始，在塔宾列提（Tabinshwehti）和拜因瑙恩（Bayinnaung）统治时期，两国之间爆发了数次战争，最终在1570年以阿育陀耶首都的陷落告终。[82]: 146–7  此后有一段短暂的时间，阿育陀耶成为了缅甸的附庸国，直到那莱颂恩（Naresuan）在1584年宣布独立。[23]: 11 

Ayutthaya then sought to improve relations with European powers for many successive reigns. The kingdom especially prospered during cosmopolitan Narai‘s reign (1656–1688) when some European travelers regarded Ayutthaya as an Asian great power, alongside China and India.^[27]: ix However, growing French influence later in his reign was met with nationalist sentiment and led eventually to the Siamese revolution of 1688.^{[82]: 185–6} However, overall relations remained stable, with French missionaries still active in preaching Christianity.^[82]: 186
【参考译文】阿育陀耶随后在多位君主的统治下寻求改善与欧洲列强的关系。尤其在纳莱王（Narai，1656-1688年在位）的开明统治下，王国达到了鼎盛时期，一些欧洲旅行者将阿育陀耶视为亚洲的大国，与当时的中国和印度齐名。[27]: ix  然而，他统治后期日益增长的法国影响力遭遇了民族主义情绪，最终导致了1688年的暹罗革命。[82]: 185–6  尽管如此，总体而言，与欧洲国家的关系保持稳定，法国传教士仍然活跃在传播基督教的第一线。[82]: 186 

After a bloody period of dynastic struggle, Ayutthaya entered into what has been called the Siamese “golden age“, a relatively peaceful episode in the second quarter of the 18th century when art, literature, and learning flourished. There were seldom foreign wars, apart from conflict with the Nguyễn lords for control of Cambodia starting around 1715. The last fifty years of the kingdom witnessed bloody succession crises, where there were purges of court officials and able generals for many consecutive reigns. In 1765, a combined 40,000-strong force of Burmese armies invaded it from the north and west.^[84]: 250 The Burmese under the new Alaungpaya dynasty quickly rose to become a new local power by 1759. After a 14-month siege, the capital city’s walls fell and the city was burned in April 1767.^[85]: 218
【参考译文】经过一段血腥的王朝斗争之后，阿育陀耶进入了一个被称为暹罗“黄金时代”的时期，这是18世纪中叶相对和平的一章，艺术、文学和学术在这段时间里蓬勃发展。除了从约1715年开始与阮氏家族争夺柬埔寨控制权的冲突外，鲜有发生外部战争。王国的最后五十年目睹了血腥的继承危机，多任君主在位期间，朝廷官员和能干将领遭到清洗。1765年，一支由北向南和西向南合计4万人的缅甸大军入侵阿育陀耶。[84]: 250  在新阿拉干派亚（Alaungpaya）王朝的领导下，缅甸迅速崛起，到1759年成为一个新的区域霸权。经过长达14个月的围困，1767年4月，阿育陀耶的城墙被攻破，城市遭到了焚毁。[85]: 218 

2.6 吞武里王国（1767年—1782年）| Thonburi Kingdom (1767–1782)

Main article: Thonburi Kingdom【主条目：吞武里王国】

The capital and many of its territories lay in chaos after the war. The former capital was occupied by the Burmese garrison army and five local leaders declared themselves overlords, including the lords of Sakwangburi, Phitsanulok, Pimai, Chanthaburi, and Nakhon Si Thammarat. Chao Tak, a capable military leader, proceeded to make himself a lord by right of conquest, beginning with the legendary sack of Chanthaburi. Based at Chanthaburi, Chao Tak raised troops and resources, and sent a fleet up the Chao Phraya to take the fort of Thonburi. In the same year, Chao Tak was able to retake Ayutthaya from the Burmese only seven months after the fall of the city.^[86]
【参考译文】战后的首都和许多领土陷入一片混乱。前首都被缅甸驻军占领，同时五个地方领袖自封为领主，包括Sakwangburi、Phitsanulok、Pimai、Chanthaburi和Nakhon Si Thammarat的领主。Chao Tak，一位有能力的军事领袖，通过征服开始自立为领主，从传说中的Chanthaburi掠夺行动开始。以Chanthaburi为基地，Chao Tak集结部队和资源，并派遣舰队沿湄南河向上游进发，夺取了吞武里的要塞。同年，Chao Tak仅在城市陷落后七个月就从缅甸手中夺回了阿育陀耶。[86]

Chao Tak then crowned himself as Taksin and proclaimed Thonburi as temporary capital in the same year. He also quickly subdued the other warlords. His forces engaged in wars with Burma, Laos, and Cambodia, which successfully drove the Burmese out of Lan Na in 1775,^[82]: 225 captured Vientiane in 1778^{[82]: 227–8} and tried to install a pro-Thai king in Cambodia in the 1770s. In his final years there was a coup, caused supposedly by his “insanity”, and eventually Taksin and his sons were executed by his longtime companion General Chao Phraya Chakri (the future Rama I). He was the first king of the ruling Chakri dynasty and founder of the Rattanakosin Kingdom on 6 April 1782.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】Chao Tak随后自封为Taksin，并在同一时期宣布吞武里为临时首都。他还迅速镇压了其他军阀。他的部队与缅甸、老挝和柬埔寨交战，成功地在1775年将缅甸人逐出兰纳地区，[82]: 225  并在1778年占领了万象。[82]: 227–8  他试图在1770年代在柬埔寨扶植亲泰国王。在他统治的最后几年，由于据说是因为他的“精神失常”，发生了一场政变，最终Taksin和他的儿子们被他长期的同伴，将军Chao Phraya Chakri（未来的拉玛一世）处决。Chao Phraya Chakri是统治的Chakri王朝的首位国王，并在1782年4月6日建立了拉达那哥欣王国。[需要引用]

2.7 拉达那哥欣王国与现代化（1782年—1932年）| Rattanakosin Kingdom and modernization (1782 –1932)

Main article: Rattanakosin Kingdom【主条目：拉达那哥欣王国】

Under Rama I (1782–1809), Rattanakosin successfully defended against Burmese attacks and put an end to Burmese incursions. He also created suzerainty over large portions of Laos and Cambodia.^[87] In 1821, Briton John Crawfurd was sent to negotiate a new trade agreement with Siam – the first sign of an issue which was to dominate 19th century Siamese politics.^[88] Bangkok signed the Burney Treaty in 1826, after the British victory in the First Anglo-Burmese War.^[82]: 281 Anouvong of Vientiane, who mistakenly held the belief that Britain was about to launch an invasion of Bangkok, started the Lao rebellion in 1826 which was suppressed.^{[82]: 283–5} Vientiane was destroyed and a large number of Lao people were relocated to Khorat Plateau as a result.^{[82]: 285–6} Bangkok also waged several wars with Vietnam, where Siam successfully regained hegemony over Cambodia.^{[82]: 290–2}
【参考译文】在拉玛一世（1782-1809年在位）的统治下，拉达那哥欣成功抵御了缅甸的袭击，并终结了缅甸的侵扰。他还确立了对老挝和柬埔寨大部分地区的宗主权。[87] 1821年，英国人约翰·克劳福德被派往暹罗协商新的贸易协定——这是19世纪暹罗政治中即将占据主导地位的问题的首个迹象。[88] 曼谷在1826年英国赢得第一次英缅战争后签署了伯尼条约。[82]: 281  万象的Anouvong错误地认为英国即将入侵曼谷，于是在1826年发动了老挝叛乱，这场叛乱随后被镇压。[82]: 283–5  万象被摧毁，大量老挝人民因此被迁移到呵叻高原。[82]: 285–6  曼谷还与越南发生了数次战争，其中暹罗成功重获对柬埔寨的霸权。[82]: 290–2 

From the late-19th century, Siam tried to rule the ethnic groups in the realm as colonies.^[82]: 308 In the reign of Mongkut (1851–1868), who recognised the potential threat Western powers posed to Siam, his court contacted the British government directly to defuse tensions.^[82]: 311 A British mission led by Sir John Bowring, Governor of Hong Kong, led to the signing of the Bowring Treaty, the first of many unequal treaties with Western countries. This, however, brought trade and economic development to Siam.^[89] The unexpected death of Mongkut from malaria led to the reign of underage King Chulalongkorn, with Somdet Chaophraya Sri Suriwongse (Chuang Bunnag) acting as regent.^[82]: 327
【参考译文】从19世纪末开始，暹罗试图将其境内的民族群体作为殖民地来统治。[82]: 308  在蒙固（Mongkut，1851-1868年在位）统治期间，他认识到了西方列强对暹罗构成的潜在威胁，于是直接与英国政府接触以缓解紧张局势。[82]: 311  由香港总督约翰·包令爵士领导的英国代表团促成了包令条约的签订，这是暹罗与西方国家签署的众多不平等条约中的第一个。然而，这为暹罗带来了贸易和经济发展。[89] 蒙固意外因疟疾去世，导致尚未成年的小国王朱拉隆功继位，由昭披耶素立旺色（Chuang Bunnag）担任摄政王。[82]: 327 

Chulalongkorn (r. 1868–1910) initiated centralisation, set up a privy council, and abolished slavery and the corvée system. The Front Palace crisis of 1874 stalled attempts at further reforms.^{[82]: 331–3} In the 1870s and 1880s, he incorporated the protectorates up north into the kingdom proper, which later expanded to the protectorates in the northeast and the south.^{[82]: 334–5} He established twelve krom in 1888, which were equivalent to present-day ministries.^[82]: 347 The crisis of 1893 erupted, caused by French demands for Laotian territory east of Mekong.^{[82]: 350–3} Thailand is the only Southeast Asian state never to have been colonised by a Western power,^[90] in part because Britain and France agreed in 1896 to make the Chao Phraya valley a buffer state.^[91] Not until the 20th century could Siam renegotiate every unequal treaty dating from the Bowring Treaty, including extraterritoriality. The advent of the monthon system marked the creation of the modern Thai nation-state.^{[82]: 362–3} In 1905, there were unsuccessful rebellions in the ancient Patani area, Ubon Ratchathani, and Phrae in opposition to an attempt to blunt the power of local lords.^{[82]: 371–3}
【参考译文】朱拉隆功（1868-1910年在位）推动了中央集权，设立了枢密院，并废除了奴隶制和徭役制度。1874年的前宫危机阻碍了进一步改革的尝试。[82]: 331–3  在1870年代和1880年代，他将北部的保护地纳入王国直辖，之后这一举措扩展到东北部和南部的保护地。[82]: 334–5  1888年，他建立了十二个克罗姆（krom），相当于现在的部门。[82]: 347  1893年的危机爆发，起因是法国要求获得湄公河东岸的老挝领土。[82]: 350–3  泰国是东南亚唯一一个从未被西方列强殖民的国家，部分原因是英国和法国在1896年同意将昭披耶河流域设为缓冲国。[91] 直到20世纪，暹罗才能重新谈判自包令条约以来的所有不平等条约，包括治外法权问题。月统系统（monthon system）的出现标志着现代泰国民族国家的创建。[82]: 362–3  1905年，古老的北大年地区、乌汶叻差他尼和培县发生了未遂叛乱，这些叛乱反对削弱地方领主权力的企图。[82]: 371–3 

The Palace Revolt of 1912 was a failed attempt by Western-educated military officers to overthrow the Siamese monarchy.^[82]: 397 Vajiravudh (r. 1910–1925) responded by propaganda for the entirety of his reign,^[82]: 402 which promoted the idea of the Thai nation.^[82]: 404 In 1917, Siam joined the First World War on the side of the Allies.^[82]: 407 In the aftermath Siam had a seat at the Paris Peace Conference, and gained freedom of taxation and the revocation of extraterritoriality.^[82]: 408
【参考译文】1912年的宫廷政变是受西方教育的军官试图推翻暹罗君主制的一次失败尝试。[82]: 397  瓦吉拉武（1910-1925年在位）通过整个统治期间的宣传作出回应，[82]: 402  推广泰国民族的观念。[82]: 404  1917年，暹罗加入了第一次世界大战，站在协约国一方。[82]: 407  战后，暹罗在巴黎和会上获得了席位，并获得了税收自由和治外法权的废除。[82]: 408 

2.8 立宪君主制、二战与冷战时期（1932年—1975年）| Constitutional monarchy, World War II and Cold War (1932–1975)

Main articles: Thailand in World War II and History of Thailand (1932–1973)
【主条目：泰国在第二次世界大战中的角色 和 泰国历史（1932年—1973年）】

主条目：第二次世界大战期间的泰国

A bloodless revolution took place in 1932, in which Prajadhipok was forced to grant the country’s first constitution, thereby ending centuries of feudal and absolute monarchy. The combined results of economic hardships brought on by the Great Depression, sharply falling rice prices, and a significant reduction in public spending caused discontent among aristocrats.^[26]: 25 In 1933, a counter-revolutionary rebellion occurred which aimed to reinstate absolute monarchy, but failed.^{[82]: 446–8} Prajadhipok’s conflict with the government eventually led to abdication. The government selected Ananda Mahidol, who was studying in Switzerland, to be the new king.^{[82]: 448–9}
【参考译文】1932年发生了一场不流血的革命，迫使Prajadhipok国王颁布了该国第一部宪法，从而结束了数个世纪的封建绝对君主制。大萧条带来的经济困难、大米价格急剧下跌，以及公共支出的大幅削减，导致了贵族阶层的不满。[26]: 25  1933年，发生了一场旨在恢复绝对君主制的反革命叛乱，但最终失败。[82]: 446–8  Prajadhipok与政府的冲突最终导致了他的退位。政府选择了正在瑞士学习的Ananda Mahidol作为新国王。[82]: 448–9 

Later that decade, the army wing of Khana Ratsadon came to dominate Siamese politics. Plaek Phibunsongkhram who became premier in 1938, started political oppression and took an openly anti-royalist stance.^[82]: 457 His government adopted nationalism and Westernisation, anti-Chinese and anti-French policies.^[26]: 28
【参考译文】在那个十年的后期，Khana Ratsadon（人民党）的军队派系开始主导暹罗政治。1938年成为首相的Phibunsongkhram开始了政治压迫，并采取了公开反皇室的立场。[82]: 457  他的政府采纳了民族主义和西化政策，以及反华和反法的立场。[26]: 28 

In 1939, there was a decree changing the name of the country from “Siam” to “Thailand”. In 1941, Thailand was in a brief conflict with Vichy France resulting in Thailand gaining some Lao and Cambodian territories.^[82]: 462
【参考译文】1939年，有一项法令将国家名称从“暹罗”改为“泰国”。1941年，泰国与维希法国短暂冲突，结果泰国获得了一些老挝和柬埔寨的领土。[82]: 462 

On 8 December 1941, the Empire of Japan launched an invasion of Thailand, and fighting broke out shortly before Phibun ordered an armistice. Japan was granted free passage, and on 21 December Thailand and Japan signed a military alliance with a secret protocol, wherein the Japanese government agreed to help Thailand regain lost territories.^[92] The Thai government then declared war on the United States and the United Kingdom.^[82]: 465 The United Kingdom, whose colony Malaya was under immediate threat from Thai forces, responded in kind, but the United States refused to declare war and ignored Thailand’s declaration.^[93]: 66 The Free Thai Movement was launched both in Thailand and abroad to oppose the government and Japanese occupation.^{[82]: 465–6} After the war ended in 1945, Thailand signed formal agreements to end the state of war with the Allies.
【参考译文】1941年12月8日，日本帝国对泰国发动了入侵，战斗在Phibun下令停火前不久爆发。日本被授予自由通行权，12月21日，泰国和日本签署了一个军事同盟，包含一项秘密协议，其中日本政府同意帮助泰国收复失去的领土。[92] 泰国政府随后对美国和英国宣战。[82]: 465  英国，其殖民地马来亚正面临泰国军队的直接威胁，作出了相应的宣战，但美国拒绝宣战，无视了泰国的宣战。[93]: 66  “自由泰国运动”在泰国国内外发起，以反对政府和日本的占领。[82]: 465–6  战争在1945年结束后，泰国签署了正式协议，结束了与盟国的战争状态。

In June 1946, young King Ananda was found dead under mysterious circumstances. His younger brother Bhumibol Adulyadej ascended to the throne. Thailand joined the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) to become an active ally of the United States in 1954.^[82]: 493 Field Marshal Sarit Thanarat launched a coup in 1957, which removed Khana Ratsadon from politics. His rule (premiership 1959–1963) was autocratic; he built his legitimacy around the god-like status of the monarch and by channelling the government’s loyalty to the king.^[82]: 511 His government improved the country’s infrastructure and education.^[82]: 514 After the United States joined the Vietnam War in 1961, there was a secret agreement wherein the U.S. promised to protect Thailand.^[82]: 523
【参考译文】1946年6月，年轻的国王Ananda在神秘的情况下被发现死亡。他的弟弟Bhumibol Adulyadej（普密蓬·阿杜德）登上了王位。泰国在1954年加入了东南亚条约组织（SEATO），成为美国在该地区的积极盟友。[82]: 493  陆军元帅Sarit Thanarat在1957年发动了政变，将Khana Ratsadon（人民党）排除出政坛。他的统治（1959-1963年担任总理）是专制的；他围绕着国王如同神一般的地位建立起合法性，并通过将政府的忠诚导向国王来巩固统治。[82]: 511  他的政府改善了国家的基础设施和教育。[82]: 514  在1961年美国加入越南战争后，有一个秘密协议，美国承诺保护泰国。[82]: 523 

The period brought about increasing modernisation and Westernisation of Thai society. Rapid urbanisation occurred when the rural populace sought work in growing cities. Rural farmers gained class consciousness and were sympathetic to the Communist Party of Thailand.^[82]: 528 Economic development and education enabled the rise of a middle class in Bangkok and other cities.^[82]: 534 In October 1971, there was a large demonstration against the dictatorship of Thanom Kittikachorn (premiership 1963–1973), which led to civilian casualties.^{[82]: 541–3} Bhumibol installed Sanya Dharmasakti (premiership 1973–1975) to replace him, marking the first time that the king had intervened in Thai politics directly since 1932.^[94] The aftermath of the event marked a short-lived parliamentary democracy,^[94] often called the “era when democracy blossomed” (ยุคประชาธิปไตยเบ่งบาน).^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】这一时期带来了泰国社会的现代化和西化程度的提高。当农村人口寻求在不断发展的城市工作时，出现了快速的城市化进程。农民阶层意识觉醒，对泰国共产党表示同情。[82]: 528  经济发展和教育使得曼谷和其他城市的中产阶级得以崛起。[82]: 534  1971年10月，爆发了大规模示威活动，抗议Thanom Kittikachorn（1963-1973年担任总理）的独裁统治，导致了平民伤亡。[82]: 541–3  普密蓬任命Sanya Dharmasakti（1973-1975年担任总理）接替他，这是自1932年以来国王首次直接干预泰国政治。[94] 这一事件的后续影响标志着短暂的议会民主时期，[94] 常被称为“民主盛开的时代”（ยุคประชาธิปไตยเบ่งบาน）。

二战后的泰国长期实行军政府独裁统治，銮披汶·颂堪（在二战后的1948年再次上台）、沙立·他那叻、他侬·吉滴卡宗、江萨·差玛南及炳·廷素拉暖等先后掌权。1991年泰国军事政变，军方推翻差猜·春哈旺、宪法和国会。其后泰国人民上街游行，抗议军方统治。军方血腥镇压，迫使泰王介入。总理苏钦达和示威人士领袖双双跪在泰王面前，承诺平息风波，示威始告结束，选举和宪法也得到恢复，泰国开始民主化。泰国民主党的川·立派成为总理。1998年7月14日，他信·西那瓦创建泰爱泰党，并任党主席。不到五年期间，泰爱泰党合并几个小党，形成一党独大的局面。

2.9 当代史 | Contemporary history

Main articles: History of Thailand (1973–2001) and History of Thailand (2001–present)
【主要条目：泰国历史（1973年—2001年）和泰国历史（2001年—至今）】

See also: South Thailand insurgency【另请参阅：泰国南部叛乱】

Constant unrest and instability, as well as fear of a communist takeover after the fall of Saigon, made some ultra-right groups brand leftist students as communists.^[82]: 548 This culminated in the Thammasat University massacre in October 1976.^{[82]: 548–9} A coup d’état on that day brought Thailand a new ultra-right government, which cracked down on media outlets, officials, and intellectuals, and fuelled the communist insurgency. Another coup the following year installed a more moderate government, which offered amnesty to communist fighters in 1978.^[95]
【参考译文】持续的动荡和不稳定局势，加之对西贡沦陷后共产主义接管的恐惧，导致一些极右翼团体将左翼学生贴上共产主义者的标签。[82]: 548  这种情况在1976年10月的Thammasat大学大屠杀中达到顶点。[82]: 548–9  当天发生的政变给泰国带来了一个新的极右翼政府，该政府打压媒体、官员和知识分子，加剧了共产主义的叛乱活动。次年发生的另一场政变则建立了一个较为温和的政府，该政府在1978年向共产主义战士提供了特赦。[95]

Fuelled by Indochina refugee crisis, Vietnamese border raids and economic hardships, Prem Tinsulanonda became the Prime Minister from 1980 to 1988. The communists abandoned the insurgency by 1983. Prem’s premiership was dubbed “semi-democracy” because the Parliament was composed of all elected House and all appointed Senate. The 1980s also saw increasing intervention in politics by the monarch, who rendered two coups in 1981 and 1985 attempts against Prem failed. In 1988 Thailand had its first elected prime minister since 1976.^[96]
【参考译文】受到印度支那难民危机、越南边境袭击和经济困境的推动，Prem Tinsulanonda从1980年至1988年担任总理。到1983年，共产主义者放弃了叛乱活动。Prem的总理任期被称为“半民主”，因为国会由全部选举产生的众议院和全部任命的参议院组成。1980年代还见证了君主对政治的越来越多的干预，他在1981年和1985年两次干预，使得针对Prem的政变企图失败。1988年，泰国自1976年以来首次拥有了民选总理。[96]

Suchinda Kraprayoon, who was the coup leader in 1991 and said he would not seek to become prime minister,^[97] was nominated as one by the majority coalition government after the 1992 general election. This caused a popular demonstration in Bangkok, which ended with a bloody military crackdown. Bhumibol intervened in the event and signed an amnesty law, Suchinda then resigned.^[98]
【参考译文】Suchinda Kraprayoon是1991年政变的领导人，他曾表示不会谋求总理职位，[97] 但在1992年大选后，由多数党组成的联合政府提名他为总理。这引发了曼谷的民众示威，最终以血腥的军事镇压告终。普密蓬介入了这一事件，并签署了一项赦免法案，随后Suchinda辞职。[98]

The 1997 Asian financial crisis originated in Thailand and ended the country’s 40 years of uninterrupted economic growth.^[99]: 3 Chuan Leekpai‘s government took an IMF loan with unpopular provisions.^[100]
【参考译文】1997年的亚洲金融危机起源于泰国，终结了该国连续40年的不间断经济增长。[99]: 3  Chuan Leekpai的政府接受了国际货币基金组织（IMF）的贷款，但附带的条件不受欢迎。[100]

The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami hit the country, mostly in the south, claiming around 5,400 lives in Phuket, Phang Nga, Ranong, Krabi, Trang, and Satun, with thousands still missing.^[101]
【参考译文】2004年的印度洋地震和海啸袭击了泰国，主要影响南部地区，造成在普吉岛、攀牙、拉农、甲米、董里和宋卡等地约5,400人死亡，另有数千人至今下落不明。[101]

图片题注：俄罗斯总统弗拉基米尔·普京与泰国总理达新·西那瓦在APEC 2003峰会会面

图片作者：Kremlin.ru

The populist Thai Rak Thai party, led by prime minister Thaksin Shinawatra, governed from 2001 until 2006. His policies were successful in reducing rural poverty^[102] and initiated universal healthcare in the country.^[103] However, Shinawatra was viewed as a corrupt populist who was destroying the middle class in order to favor himself and the rural poor. He also faced criticism over his response to a South Thailand insurgency which escalated starting from 2004. Additionally, his recommendations to the rural poor directly conflicted with King Bhumibol’s recommendations, drawing the ire of royalists, a powerful faction in Thailand. In response, the royalists made up a story about how Thaskin and his “advisors gathered in Finland to plot the overthrow of the monarchy” which dramatically expanded the opposition to the otherwise still popular Thaksin. Meanwhile, massive protests against Thaksin led by the People’s Alliance for Democracy (PAD) started in his second term as prime minister. Eventually, things reached a boiling point and the military decided they wanted to oust Thaksin.
【参考译文】由总理他信·西那瓦领导的亲民泰爱泰党从2001年至2006年执政。他的政策成功地减少了农村贫困[102]，并在国内启动了全民医疗保健系统。[103]然而，他信被视为一个腐败的民粹主义者，通过牺牲中产阶级来谋取自身利益和农村穷人的支持。他也因应对自2004年开始加剧的南泰国叛乱问题而受到批评。此外，他向农村穷人提供的建议直接与国王蒲美蓬的建议相冲突，激怒了泰国境内强大的保皇派。作为回应，保皇派编造了一个故事，声称他信和他的“顾问们在芬兰聚会策划推翻君主制”，这极大地扩大了对原本仍受欢迎的他信的反对力量。同时，在他担任总理的第二任期内，由人民民主联盟（PAD）领导的反他信大规模抗议活动开始爆发。最终，事态发展到了临界点，军方决定要推翻他信。

Despite Thailand’s military having been forced from power in the 1970s when democracy was born, Thailand’s democracy remains grounded in the implicit consent of the military and the monarchy. When the monarchy and the military agree that a democratically elected leader has gone too far, they work together to oust them. In this case, the military first sought permission from the king to oust Thaskin, permission which was denied. But then, the king rejected Thaskin’s choice to lead the army, allowing a military leader to be put into power who wanted the coup.¹  Then, the army dissolved Thaksin’s party with a coup d’état in 2006 and banned over a hundred of its executives from politics. After the coup, a military government was installed which lasted a year. ^[104][105]
【参考译文】尽管泰国军队在1970年代被民主新生所驱逐出权力中心，但泰国的民主始终建立在军队和王室的默许之上。当王室和军队认为一个民选领导人走得太远时，他们会联手将其赶下台。在此案例中，军队首先寻求国王的许可以推翻他信，但这一请求被拒绝。但是随后，国王否决了他信任命陆军领导人的选择，允许了一个想要发动政变的军事领导人上台。然后，军队于2006年通过政变解散了他信的政党，并禁止了其一百多名高层官员参与政治。政变后，一个军事政府被安插掌权，持续了一年。[104][105]

图片题注：United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship, Red Shirts, protest in 2010

参考译文：反独裁民主统一战线、红衫军、2010 年抗议活动

图片作者：Takeaway

Coming back to democracy was a process that took very active participation of the people. The people frequently stormed government buildings and the military threatened yet another coup. ^[104] Finally, in 2007, a civilian government led by the Thaksin-allied People’s Power Party (PPP) was elected. Another protest led by PAD ended with the dissolution of PPP, and the Democrat Party led a coalition government in its place. The pro-Thaksin United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship (UDD) protested both in 2009 and in 2010, the latter of which ended with a violent military crackdown causing more than 70 civilian deaths.^[106]
【参考译文】恢复民主是一个需要人民积极参与的过程。人民经常冲击政府大楼，军方威胁再次发动政变。[104] 最终，在 2007 年，由他信支持的人民力量党 (PPP) 领导的文官政府当选。另一场由人民民主联盟领导的抗议活动以人民力量党解散而告终，民主党领导的联合政府取而代之。亲他信的反独裁民主统一阵线 (UDD) 在 2009 年和 2010 年都发起了抗议活动，后者以军事镇压而告终，造成 70 多名平民死亡。[106]

After the general election of 2011, the populist Pheu Thai Party won a majority and Yingluck Shinawatra, Thaksin’s younger sister, became prime minister. The People’s Democratic Reform Committee organised another anti-Shinawatra protest^[107] after the ruling party proposed an amnesty bill which would benefit Thaksin.^[108] Yingluck dissolved parliament and a general election was scheduled, but was invalidated by the Constitutional Court. The crisis ended with another coup d’état in 2014.^[109]
【参考译文】2011 年大选后，民粹主义的为泰党赢得多数席位，他信的妹妹英拉·西那瓦成为总理。执政党提出一项有利于他信的大赦法案后，人民民主改革委员会组织了另一场反西那瓦抗议活动[107]。[108]英拉解散了议会，原定举行大选，但被宪法法院裁定无效。这场危机以 2014 年的另一场政变结束。[109]

The ensuing National Council for Peace and Order, a military junta led by General Prayut Chan-o-cha, led the country until 2019. Civil and political rights were restricted, and the country saw a surge in lèse-majesté cases. Political opponents and dissenters were sent to “attitude adjustment” camps;^[110] this was described by academics as showing the rise of fascism.^[111] Bhumibol, the longest-reigning Thai king, died in 2016, and his son Vajiralongkorn ascended to the throne. The referendum and adoption of Thailand’s current constitution happened under the junta’s rule.^[i] The junta also bound future governments to a 20-year national strategy ‘road map’ it laid down, effectively locking the country into military-guided democracy.^[113]
【参考译文】随后成立的国家和平秩序委员会，由巴育·占奥差将军领导的军政府领导泰国直至 2019 年。公民权利和政治权利受到限制，泰国冒犯君主案件激增。政治对手和异见人士被送往“态度调整”营；[110] 学者们将此描述为法西斯主义崛起的标志。[111] 在位时间最长的泰国国王普密蓬于 2016 年去世，其子哇集拉隆功继位。泰国现行宪法的全民公投和通过都是在军政府统治下进行的。[i] 军政府还将未来政府与其制定的 20 年国家战略“路线图”绑定在一起，实际上将泰国锁定在军事指导的民主制度中。[113]

图片题注：英拉·西那瓦是泰国首位担任总理的女性

图片来源：Foreign and Commonwealth Office

In 2019, the junta agreed to schedule a general election in March.^[110] Prayut continued his premiership with the support of Palang Pracharath Party-coalition in the House and junta-appointed Senate, amid allegations of election fraud.^[114] The 2020–21 pro-democracy protests were triggered by increasing royal prerogative, democratic and economic regression from the Royal Thai Armed Forces supported by the Thai monarchy in the wake of the 2014 Thai coup d’état, dissolution of the pro-democracy Future Forward Party, distrust in the 2019 general election and the current political system, forced disappearance and deaths of political activists including Wanchalearm Satsaksit, and political corruption scandals,^[115][116] which brought forward unprecedented demands to reform the monarchy^[117] and the highest sense of republicanism in the country.^[118]
【参考译文】2019 年，军政府同意在 3 月安排大选。[110]尽管存在选举舞弊的指控，巴育在众议院的公民力量党联盟和军政府任命的参议院的支持下，继续担任总理。[114] 2020-21 年民主抗议活动的引发原因是，在 2014 年泰国政变、支持民主的未来前进党解散、对 2019 年大选和现行政治体制的不信任、包括 Wanchalearm Satsaksit 在内的政治活动家被迫失踪和死亡，以及政治腐败丑闻之后，王室特权日益增加，泰国君主制支持的泰国皇家武装部队的民主和经济倒退，[115][116] 这些都带来了改革君主制的空前要求[117] 和该国最高程度的共和主义意识。[118]

In May 2023, Thailand’s reformist opposition, the progressive Move Forward Party (MFP) and the populist Pheu Thai Party, won the general election, meaning the royalist-military parties that supported Prime Minister Prayuth Chan-ocha lost power.^[119] On 22 August 2023, Srettha Thavisin of the populist Pheu Thai party, became Thailand’s new prime minister, while the Pheu Thai party’s billionaire figurehead Thaksin Shinawatra returned to Thailand after years in self-imposed exile.^[120]
【参考译文】2023 年 5 月，泰国改革派反对派、进步党前进党 (MFP) 和民粹主义的为泰党赢得大选，这意味着支持总理巴育·占奥差的保皇派军事政党失去权力。[119] 2023 年 8 月 22 日，民粹主义的为泰党的斯雷塔·达维辛成为泰国新任总理，而为泰党的亿万富翁领袖他信·西那瓦在自我流放多年后返回泰国。[120]

3. 地理 | Geography

Main article: Geography of Thailand / 主条目：泰国地理

Totalling 513,120 square kilometres (198,120 sq mi), Thailand is the 50th-largest country by total area.^[1]
【参考译文】泰国总面积达513,120平方公里（198,120平方英里），是世界上面积第50大的国家。[1]

Thailand comprises several distinct geographic regions, partly corresponding to the provincial groups. The north of the country is the mountainous area of the Thai highlands, with the highest point being Doi Inthanon in the Thanon Thong Chai Range at 2,565 metres (8,415 ft) above sea level. The northeast, Isan, consists of the Khorat Plateau, bordered to the east by the Mekong River. The centre of the country is dominated by the predominantly flat Chao Phraya river valley, which runs into the Gulf of Thailand. Southern Thailand consists of the narrow Kra Isthmus that widens into the Malay Peninsula.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】泰国包含几个不同的地理区域，这些区域部分对应着省级行政区划。该国北部是泰国高原的山区，最高点位于他农-通猜山脉的茵他侬山，海拔2,565米（8,415英尺）。东北部，即伊桑地区，由呵叻高原组成，东部边界为湄公河。泰国中部主要由相对平坦的湄南河谷地带构成，这条河流最终汇入泰国湾。南部泰国包括狭窄的克拉地峡，该地峡逐渐扩展成为马来半岛。

泰国西部为山区，是喜玛拉雅山脉的延伸他念他翁山脉为主的山地，一直由北向南走向。位于清迈府的因他暖山（海拔2,576米）是泰国的最高峰。

东北部是呵叻高原，这里夏季极干旱，雨季非常泥泞，不宜耕作。

中部是昭披耶河平原。由曼谷向北，地势逐步缓升，昭披耶河沿岸土地丰饶，是泰国主要农产地。曼谷以南为暹罗湾红树林地域，涨潮时没入水中，退潮后成为红树林沼泽地。

泰国南部是西部山脉的延续，山脉再向南形成马来半岛，最狭处称为克拉地峡。

The Chao Phraya and the Mekong River are the indispensable water courses of rural Thailand. Industrial scale production of crops use both rivers and their tributaries. The Gulf of Thailand covers 320,000 square kilometres (124,000 sq mi) and is fed by the Chao Phraya, Mae Klong, Bang Pakong, and Tapi Rivers. It contributes to the tourism sector owing to its clear shallow waters along the coasts in the southern region and the Kra Isthmus. The eastern shore of the Gulf of Thailand is an industrial centre of Thailand with the kingdom’s premier deepwater port in Sattahip and its busiest commercial port, Laem Chabang.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】湄南河和湄公河是泰国乡村不可或缺的水道。工业规模的农作物生产利用了这两条河流及其支流。泰国湾覆盖了320,000平方公里（124,000平方英里），由湄南河、湄孔河、邦巴功河和塔丕河等河流注入。由于南部地区和克拉地峡沿岸清澈浅淡的水域，泰国湾对旅游业做出了贡献。泰国湾的东岸是泰国的工业中心，拥有王国最重要的深水港——沙打希普港，以及最繁忙的商业港口——廉差邦港。

Phuket, Krabi, Ranong, Phang Nga and Trang, and their islands, all lay along the coasts of the Andaman Sea.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】普吉岛、甲米、喃农、攀牙和董里以及它们所属的岛屿，都沿着安达曼海的海岸线分布。

综上，泰国平均海拔为287米。

农业用地：41.2%（2018 年统计） 耕地：30.8%（2018 年统计） 永久性作物：8.8%（2018 年统计） 永久牧场：1.6%（2018 年统计） 森林：37.2%（2018 年统计） 其他：21.6%（2018 年统计）

另外，泰国的一般大众习惯将国家的疆域比作大象的头部，将北部视为“象冠”，东北地方代表“象耳”，暹罗湾代表“象口”，而南方的狭长地带则代表了“象鼻”。

3.1 气候 | Climate

Further information: Climate change in Thailand【更多信息：泰国的气候变化】

Thailand’s climate is influenced by monsoon winds that have a seasonal character (the southwest and northeast monsoon).^[121]: 2 Most of the country is classified as Köppen‘s tropical savanna climate.^[122] The majority of the south as well as the eastern tip of the east have a tropical monsoon climate. Parts of the south also have a tropical rainforest climate.
【参考译文】泰国的气候受季风风向的影响，具有季节性特征（西南季风和东北季风）。[121]: 2  大部分国家地区按照柯本气候分类法属于热带草原气候。[122] 南部的大部分地区以及东部的尖端地区属于热带季风气候。南部的部分地区也有热带雨林气候。

A year in Thailand is divided into three seasons.^[121]: 2 The first is the rainy or southwest monsoon season (mid–May to mid–October), which is caused by southwestern wind from the Indian Ocean.^[121]: 2 Rainfall is also contributed by Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and tropical cyclones,^[121]: 2 with August and September being the wettest period of the year.^[121]: 2 The country receives a mean annual rainfall of 1,200 to 1,600 mm (47 to 63 in).^[121]: 4 Winter or the northeast monsoon occurs from mid–October until mid–February.^[121]: 2 Most of Thailand experiences dry weather with mild temperatures.^{[121]: 2, 4} Summer or the pre–monsoon season runs from mid–February until mid–May.^[121]: 3 Due to their inland position and latitude, the north, northeast, central and eastern parts of Thailand experience a long period of warm weather, where temperatures can reach up to 40 °C (104 °F) during March to May,^[121]: 3 in contrast to close to or below 0 °C (32 °F) in some areas in winter.^[121]: 3 Southern Thailand is characterised by mild weather year-round with less diurnal and seasonal variations in temperatures due to maritime influences.^[121]: 3 It receives abundant rainfall, particularly during October to November.^[121]: 2
【参考译文】泰国的一年分为三个季节。[121]: 2  第一个是雨季或西南季风季节（5月中旬至10月中旬），这是由来自印度洋的西南风造成的。[121]: 2  降雨也由赤道低压带（ITCZ）和热带气旋贡献，[121]: 2  其中8月和9月是一年中最湿润的时期。[121]: 2  国家平均年降水量为1,200至1,600毫米（47至63英寸）。[121]: 4  冬季或东北季风发生在10月中旬至2月中旬。[121]: 2  泰国大部分地区经历干燥天气和温和温度。[121]: 2, 4  夏季或季风前季节从2月中旬持续到5月中旬。[121]: 3  由于内陆位置和纬度，泰国北部、东北部、中部和东部地区经历长时间温暖天气，3月至5月的温度可达40°C（104°F），[121]: 3  与冬季某些地区接近或低于0°C（32°F）形成对比。[121]: 3  南部泰国全年温和，由于海洋影响，昼夜和季节温度变化较小。[121]: 3  它接收充沛的雨水，尤其是在10月至11月。[121]: 2 

Thailand is among the world’s ten countries that are most exposed to climate change. In particular, it is highly vulnerable to rising sea levels and extreme weather events.^[123][124]
【参考译文】泰国是全球十个最容易受到气候变化影响的国家之一。特别是，它高度易受到海平面上升和极端天气事件的影响。[123][124]

3.2 生物多样性和保护 | Biodiversity and conservation

See also: List of protected areas of Thailand, List of forest parks of Thailand, List of species native to Thailand, and Environmental issues in Thailand
【另见：泰国保护区列表、泰国森林公园列表、泰国原生物种列表、泰国环境问题】

National parks in Thailand are defined as an area that contains natural resources of ecological importance or unique beauty, or flora and fauna of special importance. Thailand’s protected areas include 156 national parks, 58 wildlife sanctuaries, 67 non-hunting areas, and 120 forest parks. They cover almost 31 per cent of the kingdom’s territory.^[126]
【参考译文】泰国的国家公园定义为包含生态重要性或独特美景的自然资源，或是特别重要的动植物群落的区域。泰国的保护区包括156个国家公园，58个野生动物保护区，67个非狩猎区，以及120个森林公园。这些保护区几乎占了全国领土的31%。[126]

The parks are administered by the National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation Department (DNP), of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MNRE).
【参考译文】这些公园由自然资源与环境部下属的国家公园、野生动植物和植物保护部（DNP）管理。

Thailand has a mediocre but improving performance in the global Environmental Performance Index (EPI) with an overall ranking of 91 out of 180 countries in 2016. The environmental areas where Thailand performs worst (i.e., highest-ranking) are air quality (167), environmental effects of the agricultural industry (106), and the climate and energy sector (93), the later mainly because of a high CO₂ emission per kWh produced. Thailand performs best (i.e., lowest-ranking) in water resource management (66), with some major improvements expected for the future, and sanitation (68).^[127][128] The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.00/10, ranking it 88th globally out of 172 countries.^[129]
【参考译文】在2016年的全球环境绩效指数（EPI）中，泰国的表现中等但有所改善，总体排名为180个国家中的第91位。泰国在空气质量（排名第167）、农业行业的环境影响（排名第106）以及气候和能源领域（排名第93）的表现最差，后者主要是因为每千瓦时生产的二氧化碳排放量高。泰国在水资源管理（排名第66）方面表现最佳，预计未来会有显著改进，以及在卫生设施（排名第68）方面。[127][128]2019年森林景观完整性指数平均得分为6.00/10，在全球172个国家中排名第88位。[129]

The population of elephants, the country’s national symbol, has fallen from 100,000 in 1850 to an estimated 2,000.^[125] Poachers have long hunted elephants for ivory and hides, and now increasingly for meat.^[130] Young elephants are often captured for use in tourist attractions or as work animals, where there have been claims of mistreatment.^[131] In 1989 the government banned the use of elephants for logging, leading many elephant owners to move their domesticated animals to the tourism industry.^[132]
【参考译文】作为国家象征的大象数量，已从1850年的10万头下降到估计的2,000头。[125]长期以来，偷猎者为了象牙和象皮猎杀大象，现在越来越多地是为了肉。[130]幼象经常被捕获用于旅游景点或作为工作动物，有指控称它们受到了虐待。[131]1989年，政府禁止使用大象伐木，导致许多大象所有者将驯养的大象转移到旅游业。[132]

Poaching of protected species remains a major problem. Tigers, leopards, and other large cats are hunted for their pelts. Many are farmed or hunted for their meat, which supposedly has medicinal properties. Although such trade is illegal, the well-known Bangkok market Chatuchak is still known for the sale of endangered species.^[133] The practice of keeping wild animals as pets affects species such as Asiatic black bear, Malayan sun bear, white-handed lar, pileated gibbon, and binturong.^[134]
【参考译文】偷猎受保护物种仍然是一个主要问题。老虎、豹子和其他大型猫科动物因其皮毛而被猎杀。许多动物被养殖或猎杀以获取其肉，据说具有药用价值。尽管此类交易是非法的，但著名的曼谷市场Chatuchak仍然以销售濒危物种而闻名。[133]将野生动物作为宠物饲养的习惯影响了诸如亚洲黑熊、马来熊、白手长臂猿、冠猴和熊狸等物种。[134]

4. 政治和政府 | Politics and government

Main article: Politics of Thailand【主条目：泰国的政治】

Further information: Constitutions of Thailand, Government of Thailand, and Elections in Thailand
【更多信息：泰国宪法、泰国政府和泰国选举】

Prior to 1932, Thai kings were feudal or absolute monarchs. During Sukhothai Kingdom, the king was seen as a Dharmaraja or ‘king who rules in accordance with Dharma‘. The system of government was a network of tributaries ruled by local lords. Modern absolute monarchy and statehood was established by Chulalongkorn when he transformed the decentralized protectorate system into a unitary state. On 24 June 1932, Khana Ratsadon (People’s Party) carried out a bloodless revolution which marked the beginning of constitutional monarchy.
【参考译文】在1932年之前，泰国的国王是封建或绝对君主。在素可泰王国时期，国王被视为Dharmaraja，即“依照佛法统治的国王”。政府体系是由当地领主统治的朝贡网络构成。现代的绝对君主制和国家体制是在朱拉隆功（拉玛五世）时期建立的，他将分散的保护地制度改造成单一制国家。1932年6月24日，人民党（Khana Ratsadon）发动了一场不流血的革命，标志着君主立宪制的开始。

Thailand has had 20 constitutions and charters since 1932, including the latest and current 2017 Constitution. All constitutions state that the politics is conducted within the framework of a constitutional monarchy, but the de facto form of government has ranged from military dictatorship to electoral democracy.^[136][137] Thailand’s current form of government is part democracy and part dictatorship, with many terms are used to describe it.^[j] Thailand has had the fourth-most coups in the world.^[143] “Uniformed or ex-military men have led Thailand for 55 of the 83 years” between 1932 and 2009.^[144] Most recently, the military junta self-titled as the National Council for Peace and Order ruled the country between 2014 and 2019.
【参考译文】自1932年以来，泰国共有20部宪法和宪章，包括最新的2017年宪法。所有宪法都声明政治运作是在君主立宪制的框架内进行，但实际上的政府形式从军事独裁到选举民主都有所体现。[136][137]泰国目前的政府形式部分民主，部分独裁，用来描述它的术语有很多。[j] 泰国是世界上发生政变第四多的国家。[143]“穿制服或退役的军人在1932年至2009年间83年的55年里领导泰国。”[144] 最近，自称国家和平秩序委员会的军事政变政权在2014年至2019年间统治了国家。

Government is separated into three branches:
【参考译文】政府分为三个分支：

• The legislative branch: the National Assembly is composed of the Senate, the 200-member indirectly elected upper house and House of Representatives, the elected 500-member lower house. Its most recent election is the 2023 general election. The coalition led by Pheu Thai Party currently holds the majority. The 2024 Thai Senate election was the first senate election held under the current constitution in the process criticized as “the most complicated election in the world.”^[145] The senate is allegedly dominated by Bhumjaithai Party-affiliated senators.^[146]
  【参考译文】立法部门：泰国的国会由上议院和下议院组成，上议院是200名间接选举成员的参议院，下议院则是500名选举产生的众议院。最近的一次选举是2023年大选。目前由为泰党领导的联盟持有大多数席位。2024年泰国参议院选举是根据现行宪法举行的第一次参议院选举，在过程中被批评为“世界上最复杂的选举”。[145]参议院据称由与自豪泰党有关联的议员主导。[146]
• The executive branch consisting of the Prime Minister of Thailand, the head of government, and other cabinet members of up to 35 people. The Prime Minister was elected by the National Assembly. The current constitution mandates that prime ministers are to be considered from candidates nominated by political parties before the election. The current prime minister is Srettha Thavisin, a candidate from Pheu Thai, who was supported by the coalition which include the parties associated with the military, and 152 unelected senators.^[147][148]
  【参考译文】行政部门由泰国总理、政府首脑，以及其他最多35人的内阁成员组成。总理由国会选举产生。现行宪法规定，总理候选人必须在选举前由政党提名。现任总理是来自为泰党的瑟塔·塔维辛，他得到了包括与军方有关联的政党在内的联盟支持，以及152名非选举产生的参议员的支持。[147][148]
• The judiciary is supposed to be independent of the executive and the legislative branches, although judicial rulings are suspected of being based on political considerations rather than on existing law.^[149]
  【参考译文】司法部门理论上独立于行政部门和立法部门，尽管司法判决被怀疑基于政治考量而非现有法律。[149]

Military and bureaucratic aristocrats fully controlled political parties between 1946 and the 1980s.^[150]: 16 Most parties in Thailand are short-lived.^[151]: 246 Between 1992 and 2006, Thailand had a two-party system.^[151]: 245 Later constitutions created a multi-party system where a single party cannot gain a majority in the house.
【参考译文】在1946年至1980年代之间，军人和官僚贵族完全控制了泰国的政治党派。[150]: 16 泰国的大多数政党寿命较短。[151]: 246 在1992年至2006年期间，泰国实行两党制。[151]: 245 后来的宪法创建了一个多党制体系，其中任何一个政党都无法在众议院中获得多数席位。

4.1 君主制

辽观注：此标题是我们在搬运、整合过程中添加的。

A hereditary monarch serves as Thailand’s head of state. The current King of Thailand is Vajiralongkorn (or Rama X), who has reigned since October 2016. The powers of the king are limited by the constitution and he is primarily a symbolic figurehead. However, the monarch still occasionally intervenes in Thai politics, as all constitutions pave the way for customary royal rulings. Some academics outside Thailand, including Duncan McCargo and Federico Ferrara, noted extraconstitutional role of the monarch through a “network monarchy” behind the political scenes.^[152] The monarchy is protected by the severe lèse majesté law, even though the people’s attitude towards the institution varies from one reign to another.^[153][154]
【参考译文】泰国的国家元首是世袭君主。泰国现任国王是哇集拉隆功（或拉玛十世），自2016年10月以来在位。国王的权力受到宪法限制，主要是象征性的国家元首。然而，君主偶尔会介入泰国政治，因为所有的宪法都为传统的皇室裁决铺平了道路。包括邓肯·麦卡戈和费德里科·费拉拉在内的泰国以外的一些学者注意到，君主通过幕后的一个“网络君主制”扮演了超越宪法的角色。[152]君主制受到严厉的亵渎君主罪法律保护，尽管人们对这一制度的态度随着不同的在位时期而变化。[153][154]

The kings are protected by lèse-majesté laws which allow critics to be jailed for three to fifteen years.^[155] After the 2014 Thai coup d’état, Thailand had the highest number of lèse-majesté prisoners in the nation’s history.^[156][157] Human rights in Thailand has been rated not free on the Freedom House Index since 2014.^[158]
【参考译文】国王受到亵渎君主罪法律的保护，批评者可能被判处3至15年的监禁。[155]在2014年泰国政变之后，泰国历史上囚犯人数最多的亵渎君主罪犯出现在该国。[156][157]自2014年以来，泰国的人权状况在自由之家指数中被评为不自由。[158]

据报导，泰国的政变有时或与王室及支持王室的势力有关；国王为保持平衡，指示政争须有限度。2008年的政治危机中，穿着黄衫、包围机场的人被指为王室支持者；运动起源于国王惧怕他信进一步扩张影响力。总理颂猜代表民选政府命令警察进入机场驱逐黄衫人，但军警都只忠于国王而不愿行动。^[31]

政变后，泰国通过2007年宪法，规定由军队控制的选举委员会指定参议院160席中的84席，其余议席中的绝大部分也由各地的选举委员会指定；并且通过法院限制原泰爱泰党议员参选而控制住众议院，进而控制政府官员的选择。由于军队是忠于泰国王室，因此，通过政变，泰国王室重新控制及主导泰国的军政大权。

2013年泰国反政府抗议活动泰国在野党民主党（Democrat Party）10月30日宣布，31日将在曼谷的讪甚（Sam Sen）铁路一带发动反特赦案集会。抗议人士认为，特赦案目的是要替因贪污遭定罪的前总理他信·西那瓦漂白，让他能够结束自我流亡，返回泰国。11月11日参议院以压倒性票数驳回特赦法案，但示威人潮并未减退。同年12月9日，总理英拉·西那瓦宣布解散国会，提前于2014年2月2日举行大选，但反对派不买账，继续示威抗议，要求英拉·西那瓦下台，组成人民议会。

2014年5月20日，泰国军方宣布实施戒严法。5月22日泰国爆发军事政变，陆军总司令巴育宣布接掌政权，巴育与资深军方官员一同在全国转播的节目上，宣布接掌政权，并称此举是为了恢复和平，这是泰国自1932年以来，军方第12次发动政变。

2020年2月，泰国宪法法院裁定备受年轻人欢迎的未来前进党党魁塔纳通向该党贷款违法，判处未来前进党解散，禁止该组织的11名主要成员参政10年。^[32]随后在泰国各地爆发了数起示威抗议^[33]。2020年10月15日，泰国宣布进入紧急状态^[26]。

On the Freedom in the World 2024 Report for Thailand, their status improved from not free to partly free due to competitive parliamentary elections and the formation of a new governing coalition by what had been a major opposition party, though unelected senators ensured that the party with the most votes was excluded.^[159]
【参考译文】在2024年泰国自由世界报告中，泰国的状态从不自由提升到部分自由，这是由于竞争性的国会选举以及由一个主要反对党组建的新执政联盟，尽管非选举产生的参议员确保了得票最多的政党被排除在外。[159]

4.2 行政区划 | Administrative divisions

Main articles: Organization of the government of Thailand, Provinces of Thailand, and Administrative Divisions of Thailand【主要条目：泰国政府组织、泰国省份、泰国行政区划】

主条目：泰国行政区划和泰国府份面积列表

See also: Regions of Thailand【另见：泰国的地区】

Thailand is a unitary state; the administrative services of the executive branch are divided into three levels by National Government Organisation Act, BE 2534 (1991): central, provincial and local. Thailand is composed of 76 provinces (จังหวัด, changwat),^[160] which are first-level administrative divisions. There are also two specially governed districts: the capital Bangkok and Pattaya. Bangkok is at provincial level and thus often counted as a province. Each province is divided into districts (อำเภอ, amphoe) and the districts are further divided into sub-districts (ตำบล, tambons). The name of each province’s capital city (เมือง, mueang) is the same as that of the province. For example, the capital of Chiang Mai Province (Changwat Chiang Mai) is Mueang Chiang Mai or Chiang Mai. All provincial governors and district chiefs, which are administrators of provinces and districts respectively, are appointed by the central government.^[161] Thailand’s provinces are sometimes grouped into four to six regions, depending on the source.
【参考译文】泰国是一个单一制国家；根据1991年国家政府组织法，行政部门的服务被分为三个层级：中央、省（府）和地方。泰国由76个府（จังหวัด，changwat）[160]组成，这些是第一级行政划分。此外，还有两个特别管理区：首都曼谷和芭提雅。曼谷在省（府）级水平上，因此通常也被视为一个府。每个省进一步划分为县或郡（อำเภอ，amphoe），而区又被细分为次区（ตำบล，tambons）。每个府的首府（เมือง，mueang）的名字与该省相同。例如，清迈府（Changwat Chiang Mai）的首府是Mueang Chiang Mai或清迈。所有省长和区长，分别是省和区的管理者，都是由中央政府任命的。[161]泰国的省份有时按来源不同被分成四到六个区域。

4.3 国际关系 | Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Thailand【主条目：泰国的国际关系】

Siam’s and Thailand’s way of conducting foreign relations has long been described as “bamboo bending with the wind”, of policies that are “always solidly rooted, but flexible enough to bend whichever way the wind blows in order to survive,”^[162] or adaptable and pragmatic. In order to secure independence, it sought to pit one great power against the others so that it would be dominated by none.^[163]
【参考译文】暹罗和泰国的外交政策长期以来被描述为“随风弯曲的竹子”，即政策“总是根植牢固，但足够灵活以适应任何风吹的方向以便生存”，[162] 或者说是适应性强且务实的。为了确保独立，泰国力求让各大国相互牵制，以免被任何一方主宰。[163]

During the Cold War, Thailand sought to prevent the spread of communism so it joined the United States, including participating in SEATO alliance, sending expeditions to Korea and Vietnam, and offering the US to use its base. Thailand is one of the five founding members of Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), initially to safeguard against communism. The end of Vietnam War was a turning point in Thai foreign policy and afterwards it sought to improve relations with Communist China and its now-Communist neighbours. Thailand remains an active member of ASEAN and seek to project its influence in it. Thailand has developed increasingly close ties with other members, with progressing regional co-operation in economic, trade, banking, political, and cultural matters.^[164]
【参考译文】冷战期间，泰国试图阻止共产主义的蔓延，因此加入了美国阵营，包括参与东南亚条约组织（SEATO）联盟，派遣部队参加朝鲜战争和越南战争，以及允许美国使用其基地。泰国是东南亚国家联盟（ASEAN）五个创始成员国之一，最初目的是为了抵御共产主义。越南战争的结束是泰国外交政策的一个转折点，之后泰国寻求改善与中国和其现已成为共产主义邻国的关系。泰国依然是东盟的活跃成员，努力在其内部扩大影响力。泰国与其他成员国的关系日益密切，在经济、贸易、银行、政治和文化领域的区域合作不断推进。[164]

In the 2000s, Thailand had taken an active role on the international stage and participated fully in international and regional organisations. It is a major non-NATO ally and Priority Watch List Special 301 Report of the United States. When East Timor gained independence from Indonesia, Thailand contributed troops to the international peacekeeping effort.^[165] As part of its effort to increase international ties, Thailand had reached out to such regional organisations as the Organization of American States (OAS)^[166] and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).^[167]
【参考译文】进入2000年代，泰国在国际舞台上发挥了积极作用，全面参与国际和区域组织。它是美国的重要非北约盟友，被列入美国特别301条款优先观察名单。东帝汶从印尼独立后，泰国派遣部队参与国际维和行动。[165]作为加强国际联系的努力的一部分，泰国还接触了美洲国家组织（OAS）[166]和欧洲安全与合作组织（OSCE）。[167]

During Thaksin Shinawatra‘s premiership, negotiations for several free trade agreements with China, Australia, Bahrain, India, and the US were initiated. Thaksin sought to position Thailand as a regional leader, initiating various development projects in poorer neighbouring countries. More controversially, he established close, friendly ties with the Burmese dictatorship.^[168] Thailand joined the US-led invasion of Iraq, sending a humanitarian contingent until September 2004.^[169] Thailand also had contributed troops to reconstruction efforts in Afghanistan.^[170]
【参考译文】在他信·西那瓦担任总理期间，泰国启动了与中国、澳大利亚、巴林、印度和美国的自由贸易协定谈判。他信力图使泰国成为区域领袖，发起了对周边较贫穷国家的各种发展项目。更具争议的是，他与缅甸军政府建立了亲密友好关系。[168]泰国加入美国主导的伊拉克入侵行动，派遣了人道主义部队直至2004年9月。[169]泰国也向阿富汗的重建工作派遣了部队。[170]

In April 2009, the Cambodian–Thai border dispute brought troops on territory immediately adjacent to the 900-year-old ruins of Cambodia’s Preah Vihear Hindu temple near the border.^[171][172]
【参考译文】2009年4月，柬泰边境争端导致两国军队部署在距柬埔寨900年历史的柏威夏印度教寺庙附近边境地带的领土上。[171][172]

After the 2014 coup, Thailand leaned more towards China.^[173] Growing Chinese influence and capital inflow caused some members of parliament to raise the concern about “economic colony” under China after many concessions.^[174]
【参考译文】2014年政变后，泰国更加倾向于中国。[173]中国影响力的扩大和资本流入促使一些国会议员在一系列让步后表达了对中国“经济殖民地”担忧。[174]

During the Israel-Hamas military conflict in 2023, at first Thailand’s prime minister stated that his government strongly condemns the attack against Israel and extends its deepest condolences to the government and the people of Israel^[175] but the government later changed its position and announced that Thailand adopted a neutral stance in this conflict.^[176] 28 Thai nationals were killed in this conflict.^[177]
【参考译文】在2023年以色列与哈马斯的军事冲突中，起初泰国总理表示其政府强烈谴责对以色列的攻击，并向以色列政府和人民表示最深切的哀悼，[175]但政府随后改变了立场，宣布泰国在这场冲突中采取中立立场。[176]这场冲突中有28名泰国国民丧生。[177]

4.4 武装力量 | Armed forces

Main article: Royal Thai Armed Forces【主条目：泰国皇家武装力量】

The Royal Thai Armed Forces (กองทัพไทย; RTGS: Kong Thap Thai) constitute the military of the Kingdom of Thailand. It consists of the Royal Thai Army (กองทัพบกไทย), the Royal Thai Navy (กองทัพเรือไทย), and the Royal Thai Air Force (กองทัพอากาศไทย). It also incorporates various paramilitary forces.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】皇家泰国武装部队（กองทัพไทย；RTGS：Kong Thap Thai）构成了泰国王国的军事力量。它由皇家泰国陆军（กองทัพบกไทย）、皇家泰国海军（กองทัพเรือไทย）和皇家泰国空军（กองทัพอากาศไทย）组成。它还包括各种准军事部队。[引证需要]

The Thai Armed Forces have a combined manpower of 306,000 active duty personnel and another 245,000 active reserve personnel.^[178] The head of the Thai Armed Forces (จอมทัพไทย, Chom Thap Thai) is the king,^[179] although this position is only nominal. The armed forces are managed by the Ministry of Defence of Thailand, which is headed by the Minister of Defence (a member of the cabinet of Thailand) and commanded by the Royal Thai Armed Forces Headquarters, which in turn is headed by the Chief of Defence Forces of Thailand.^[180] Thai annual defense budget almost tripled from US$1.98 billion in 2005 to US$5.88 billion in 2016, accounting for approximately 1.4% of GDP.^[181] Thailand ranked 16th worldwide in the Military Strength Index based on the Credit Suisse report in September 2015.^[182]
【参考译文】泰国武装部队有合计306,000名现役人员和另外245,000名现役预备役人员。[178]泰国武装部队的名义最高统帅是国王，[179]尽管这一职位仅具象征意义。武装部队由泰国国防部管理，该部由泰国国防部长（泰国内阁成员）领导，并由皇家泰国武装部队总部指挥，而后者又由泰国国防军总司令领导。[180]泰国的年度国防预算从2005年的19.8亿美元几乎增长了三倍，到2016年达到58.8亿美元，约占GDP的1.4%。[181]根据2015年9月瑞士信贷报告，泰国在全球军事实力指数中排名第16位。[182]

The military is also tasked with humanitarian missions, such as escorting Rohingya to Malaysia or Indonesia,^[183] ensuring security and welfare for refugees during Indochina refugee crisis.^[184]
【参考译文】军队还承担着人道主义任务，例如护送罗兴亚人前往马来西亚或印度尼西亚，[183]以及在印度支那难民危机期间确保难民的安全和福利。[184]

According to the constitution, serving in the armed forces is a duty of all Thai citizens.^[185] Thailand still use active draft system for males over the age of 21. They are subjected to varying lengths of active service depending on the duration of reserve training as Territorial Defence Student and their level of education. Those who have completed three years or more of reserve training will be exempted entirely. The practice has long been criticized, as some media question its efficacy and value.^[186][187] It is alleged that conscripts end up as servants to senior officers^[188] or clerks in military cooperative shops.^[189][190] In a report issued in March 2020, Amnesty International charged that Thai military conscripts face institutionalised abuse systematically hushed up by military authorities.^[191]
【参考译文】根据宪法，为武装部队服役是所有泰国公民的责任。[185]泰国仍然对21岁以上的男性使用现役征兵制度。他们根据接受领土防御学生预备役训练的时间长度和教育程度的不同，需服不同期限的现役。完成三年以上预备役训练的人将完全免除服役。这一做法长期受到批评，一些媒体质疑其效力和价值。[186][187]有指控称，新兵最终成为高级军官的仆人[188]或军队合作社商店的文员。[189][190]在2020年3月发布的一份报告中，国际特赦组织指控泰国新兵面临军队当局系统性掩盖的制度化虐待。[191]

Critics observed that Thai military’s main objective is to deal with internal rather than external threats.^[192] Internal Security Operations Command is called the political arm of the Thai military, which has overlapping social and political functions with civilian bureaucracy. It also has anti-democracy mission.^[192] The military is also notorious for numerous corruption incidents, such as accusation of human trafficking,^[193] and nepotism in promotion of high-ranking officers.^[194] The military is deeply entrenched in politics. Most recently, the appointed senators include more than 100 active and retired military.^[195]
【参考译文】批评者指出，泰国军队的主要目标是处理内部而非外部威胁。[192]内部安全行动指挥部被称为泰国军队的政治臂膀，其社会和政治职能与文职官僚机构重叠。它还肩负着反民主的任务。[192]军队还因多起腐败事件而臭名昭著，比如人口贩卖的指控，[193]以及晋升高级军官中的裙带关系。[194]军队深深嵌入政治之中。最近，被任命的参议员中包括超过100名现役和退役的军人。[195]

5. 经济 | Economy

Main article: Economy of Thailand【主条目：泰国的经济】

主条目：泰国经济和泰国科技

The economy of Thailand is heavily export-dependent, with exports accounting for more than two-thirds of gross domestic product (GDP). Thailand exports over US$105 billion worth of goods and services annually.^[1] Major exports include cars, computers, electrical appliances, rice, textiles and footwear, fishery products, rubber, and jewellery.^[1]
【参考译文】泰国的经济严重依赖出口，出口额占国内生产总值（GDP）的三分之二以上。泰国每年出口超过1050亿美元的商品和服务。[1]主要出口商品包括汽车、电脑、电器、大米、纺织品和鞋类、渔业产品、橡胶和珠宝。[1]

Thailand is an emerging economy and is considered a newly industrialised country. Thailand had a 2017 GDP of US$1.236 trillion (on a purchasing power parity basis).^[201] Thailand is the second largest economy in Southeast Asia after Indonesia. Thailand ranks midway in the wealth spread in Southeast Asia as it is the fourth richest nation according to GDP per capita, after Singapore, Brunei, and Malaysia.
【参考译文】泰国是一个新兴经济体，被认为是新工业化国家。2017年，泰国的GDP为1.236万亿美元（按购买力平价计算）。[201]泰国是东南亚第二大经济体，仅次于印度尼西亚。根据人均GDP，泰国在东南亚财富分布中居中，是继新加坡、文莱和马来西亚之后的第四富裕国家。

Thailand functions as an anchor economy for the neighbouring developing economies of Laos, Myanmar, and Cambodia. In the third quarter of 2014, the unemployment rate in Thailand stood at 0.84% according to Thailand’s National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB).^[202]
【参考译文】泰国作为老挝、缅甸和柬埔寨等邻近发展中经济体的经济支柱发挥作用。2014年第三季度，根据泰国国家经济社会发展局（NESDB）的数据，泰国的失业率为0.84%。[202]

In 2017, the Thai economy grew an inflation-adjusted 3.9%, up from 3.3% in 2016, marking its fastest expansion since 2012.^[203] High public spending, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic, prompted the authorities to raise Thailand’s public debt ceiling from 60% to 70% of GDP.^[204] As of 2024, Thailand struggle with low productivity, poor education, high household debt, low private investment and slow economic growth,^[205][206] with an economic research group forecasted an annual GDP growth of below 2% in the next decades without structural reforms.^[207]
【参考译文】2017年，泰国经济经通胀调整后增长了3.9%，高于2016年的3.3%，创下了自2012年以来的最快增速。[203]高额的公共支出，特别是在COVID-19疫情期间，促使当局将泰国的公共债务上限从GDP的60%提高到了70%。[204]截至2024年，泰国正面临低生产力、教育质量不佳、家庭债务高企、私人投资不足和经济增长缓慢的挑战，[205][206]一个经济研究团队预测，如果不进行结构性改革，未来几十年泰国的年均GDP增长率将低于2%。[207]

5.1 出口和制造业 | Exports and manufacturing

The economy of Thailand is heavily export-dependent, with exports accounting for more than two-thirds of gross domestic product (GDP). Thailand exports over US$105 billion worth of goods and services annually.^[1] Major exports include cars, computers, electrical appliances, rice, textiles and footwear, fishery products, rubber, and jewellery.^[1]
【参考译文】泰国的经济高度依赖出口，出口额占国内生产总值（GDP）的三分之二以上。泰国每年出口超过1050亿美元的商品和服务。[1]主要出口商品包括汽车、电脑、电器、大米、纺织品和鞋类、渔业产品、橡胶和珠宝。[1]

Substantial industries include electric appliances, components, computer components, and vehicles. Thailand’s recovery from the 1997–1998 Asian financial crisis depended mainly on exports, among various other factors. As of 2012, the Thai automotive industry was the largest in Southeast Asia and the 9th largest in the world.^{[217][218][219]} The Thailand industry has an annual output of near 1.5 million vehicles, mostly commercial vehicles.^[219]
【参考译文】重要的产业包括电器、零部件、计算机组件和车辆。泰国从1997-1998年亚洲金融危机中的复苏主要依赖于出口，当然也有其他多种因素。截至2012年，泰国汽车工业是东南亚最大的，并且是全球第九大的汽车生产国。[217][218][219]泰国汽车产业每年的产量接近150万辆，主要是商用车辆。[219]

Most of the vehicles built in Thailand are developed and licensed by foreign producers, mainly Japanese and American. The Thai car industry takes advantage of the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) to find a market for many of its products. Eight manufacturers, five Japanese, two US, and Tata of India, produce pick-up trucks in Thailand.^[220] As of 2012, due to its favorable taxation for 2-door pick-ups at only 3–12% against 17–50% for passenger cars, Thailand was the second largest consumer of pick-up trucks in the world, after the US.^[221] In 2014, pick-ups accounted for 42% of all new vehicle sales in Thailand.^[220]
【参考译文】在泰国制造的大部分车辆都是由外国生产商，主要是日本和美国的企业开发和授权的。泰国汽车行业利用东盟自由贸易区（AFTA）为其许多产品寻找市场。八家制造商，其中有五家日本企业，两家美国企业和一家印度的Tata公司，在泰国生产皮卡。[220]截至2012年，由于泰国对双门皮卡征收仅为3-12%的优惠税率，而对乘用车则征收17-50%的税率，泰国成为了全球第二大皮卡消费国，仅次于美国。[221]在2014年，皮卡占了泰国所有新车销量的42%。[220]

5.2 旅游业 | Tourism

Further information: Tourism in Thailand / 主条目：泰国旅游业

Tourism makes up about 6% of the country’s economy. Prior to the pandemic, Thailand was the world’s eighth most visited country according to the World Tourism rankings compiled by the United Nations World Tourism Organization. In 2019, Thailand received 39.8 million international tourists, ahead of United Kingdom and Germany^[222] and was the fourth highest in international tourism earning 60.5 billion US dollars.
【参考译文】旅游业约占泰国经济的6%。在疫情前，根据联合国世界旅游组织编制的世界旅游排行榜，泰国是全球第八大访问量最多的国家。2019年，泰国接待了3980万国际游客，超过了英国和德国[222]，在国际旅游收入上排名第四，达到605亿美元。

Thailand was the most visited country in Southeast Asia in 2013, according to the World Tourism Organization. Estimates of tourism receipts directly contributing to the Thai GDP of 12 trillion baht range from 9 percent (1 trillion baht) (2013) to 16 percent.^[223] When including the indirect effects of tourism, it is said to account for 20.2 percent (2.4 trillion baht) of Thailand’s GDP.^[224]: 1
【参考译文】根据世界旅游组织的数据，2013年泰国是东南亚访问量最多的国家。直接来自旅游业的收入对泰国12万亿泰铢GDP的贡献估计在9%（1万亿泰铢）（2013年）至16%之间。[223]考虑到旅游业的间接效应，据说它占泰国GDP的20.2%（2.4万亿泰铢）。[224]: 1 

Asian tourists primarily visit Thailand for Bangkok and the historical, natural, and cultural sights in its vicinity. Western tourists not only visit Bangkok and surrounding areas; many travel to the southern beaches and islands. The north is the chief destination for trekking and adventure travel with its diverse ethnic minority groups and forested mountains. The region hosting the fewest tourists is Isan. To accommodate foreign visitors, a separate tourism police with offices were set up in the major tourist areas and an emergency telephone number.^[225]
【参考译文】亚洲游客主要来泰国访问曼谷及其周边的历史、自然和文化景点。西方游客不仅访问曼谷和周边地区，许多人还会去南部的海滩和岛屿。北部是徒步旅行和探险旅游的主要目的地，那里有多样的少数民族群体和森林覆盖的山脉。接待游客最少的地区是东北部（伊桑）。为了接待外国游客，专门设立了旅游警察，在主要旅游区设有办公室，并提供紧急电话号码。[225]

Thailand ranks as the worlds fifth largest medical tourism destination in spending, according to the World Travel and Tourism Council, attracting over 2.5 million visitors in 2018,^[226] and is number one in Asia.^[227] The country is popular for the growing practice of sex reassignment surgery (SRS) and cosmetic surgery. In 2010–2012, more than 90% of medical tourists traveled to Thailand for SRS.^[228]
【参考译文】根据世界旅游和旅游理事会的数据，泰国在全球医疗旅游目的地的花费中排名第五，2018年吸引了超过250万游客，[226]在亚洲排名第一。[227]这个国家因其日益流行的性别重置手术（SRS）和整形手术而受欢迎。2010-2012年间，超过90%的医疗游客前往泰国进行SRS。[228]

Prostitution in Thailand and sex tourism also form a de facto part of the economy. Campaigns promote Thailand as exotic to attract tourists.^[229] One estimate published in 2003 placed the trade at US$4.3 billion per year or about 3% of the Thai economy.^[230] It is believed that at least 10% of tourist dollars are spent on the sex trade.^[231]
【参考译文】泰国的卖淫行为和性旅游也是事实上经济的一部分。宣传活动将泰国描绘成异国情调的地方，以吸引游客。[229]2003年发表的一项估计将这个行业定为每年43亿美元，约占泰国经济的3%。[230]人们认为至少有10%的旅游收入花在了性交易上。[231]

关于“人妖”表演，据非官方的统计，泰国约有2%的男性透过人为的方式男变女，数量大约有 70 万人左右，但一般相信实际数字可能更高^[39]。

5.3 农业和自然资源 | Agriculture and natural resources

Further information: Agriculture in Thailand / 主条目：泰国农业

Forty-nine per cent of Thailand’s labour force is employed in agriculture.^[232] This is down from 70% in 1980.^[232] Rice is the most important crop in the country and Thailand had long been the world’s leading exporter of rice, until recently falling behind both India and Vietnam.^[233] Thailand has the highest percentage of arable land, 27.25%, of any state in the Greater Mekong Subregion.^[234] About 55% of the arable land area is used for rice production.^[235]
【参考译文】泰国劳动力的49%从事农业工作。[232]这一比例从1980年的70%有所下降。[232]稻米是该国最重要的作物，泰国曾长期是世界上最大的稻米出口国，直到最近被印度和越南超越。[233]在大湄公河次区域的所有国家中，泰国拥有最高的可耕地比例，达到27.25%。[234]大约55%的可耕地面积用于水稻生产。[235]

Agriculture has been experiencing a transition from labour-intensive and transitional methods to a more industrialised and competitive sector.^[232] Between 1962 and 1983, the agricultural sector grew by 4.1% per year on average and continued to grow at 2.2% between 1983 and 2007.^[232] The relative contribution of agriculture to GDP has declined while exports of goods and services have increased.
【参考译文】农业正在经历从劳动密集型和传统方法向更工业化和更具竞争力的行业的转变。[232]在1962年至1983年间，农业部门平均每年增长4.1%，并在1983年至2007年间继续以2.2%的速度增长。[232]农业对GDP的相对贡献已经下降，而商品和服务的出口则在增加。

Furthermore, access to biocapacity in Thailand is lower than world average. In 2016, Thailand had 1.2 global hectares^[236] of biocapacity per person within its territory, a little less than world average of 1.6 global hectares per person.^[237] In contrast, in 2016, they used 2.5 global hectares of biocapacity – their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use about twice as much biocapacity as Thailand contains, resulting in a deficit.^[236]
【参考译文】此外，泰国的人均生物承载力低于世界平均水平。2016年，泰国境内每人的生物承载力为1.2全球公顷，[236]略低于世界人均1.6全球公顷的水平。[237]相比之下，2016年，泰国消耗了2.5全球公顷的生物承载力——这是他们的消费生态足迹。这意味着他们使用的生物承载力大约是泰国所拥有的两倍，从而导致了赤字。[236]

5.4 非正规经济 | Informal economy

Thailand has a diverse and robust informal labour sector—in 2012, it was estimated that informal workers comprised 62.6% of the Thai workforce. The Ministry of Labour defines informal workers to be individuals who work in informal economies and do not have employee status under a given country’s Labour Protection Act (LPA). The informal sector in Thailand has grown significantly over the past 60 years over the course of Thailand’s gradual transition from an agriculture-based economy to becoming more industrialised and service-oriented.^[238] Between 1993 and 1995, ten per cent of the Thai labour force moved from the agricultural sector to urban and industrial jobs, especially in the manufacturing sector. It is estimated that between 1988 and 1995, the number of factory workers in the country doubled from two to four million, as Thailand’s GDP tripled.^[239] While the Asian Financial Crisis that followed in 1997 hit the Thai economy hard, the industrial sector continued to expand under widespread deregulation, as Thailand was mandated to adopt a range of structural adjustment reforms upon receiving funding from the IMF and World Bank. These reforms implemented an agenda of increased privatisation and trade liberalisation in the country, and decreased federal subsidisation of public goods and utilities, agricultural price supports, and regulations on fair wages and labour conditions.^[240] These changes put further pressure on the agricultural sector, and prompted continued migration from the rural countryside to the growing cities. Many migrant farmers found work in Thailand’s growing manufacturing industry, and took jobs in sweatshops and factories with few labour regulations and often exploitative conditions.^[241]
【参考译文】泰国拥有一个多样且强大的非正规劳动力部门——据估计，2012年非正规工人占泰国劳动力的62.6%。泰国劳工部定义非正规工人为在非正规经济中工作，且不具有所在国《劳工保护法》(LPA)下雇员身份的个人。过去60年来，随着泰国从农业为基础的经济逐渐转变为更加工业化和服务导向型经济，泰国的非正规部门显著增长。[238]在1993年至1995年间，泰国劳动力的10%从农业部门转向城市和工业工作，尤其是在制造业。据估计，1988年至1995年间，全国工厂工人的数量从200万增至400万，与此同时，泰国的GDP翻了三番。[239]尽管随之而来的1997年亚洲金融危机严重冲击了泰国经济，但在广泛的去监管化下，工业部门继续扩张，因为泰国在从国际货币基金组织(IMF)和世界银行获得资金时被要求采纳一系列结构性调整改革。这些改革推动了国家私有化和贸易自由化的议程，减少了联邦对公共商品、公用事业、农业价格支持以及公平工资和劳动条件规定的补贴。[240]这些变化给农业部门带来了更大的压力，并促成了农村向不断增长的城市的持续迁移。许多移民农民在泰国不断扩大的制造业找到了工作，并在几乎没有劳动法规、条件往往剥削性的血汗工厂和工厂中工作。[241]

Those that could not find formal factory work, including illegal migrants and the families of rural Thai migrants that followed their relatives to the urban centres, turned to the informal sector to provide the extra support needed for survival—under the widespread regulation imposed by the structural adjustment programs, one family member working in a factory or sweatshop made very little. Scholars argue that the economic consequences and social costs of Thailand’s labour reforms in the wake of the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis fell on individuals and families rather than the state: as the country’s labour market became increasingly deregulated, the burden and responsibility of providing an adequate livelihood shifted from employers and the state to the workers themselves, whose families had to find jobs in the informal sector to make up for the losses and subsidise the wages being made by their relatives in the formal sector. The weight of these economic changes hit migrants and the urban poor especially hard, and the informal sector expanded rapidly as a result.^[240]
【参考译文】那些无法找到正式工厂工作的人，包括非法移民和跟随亲属迁移到城市中心的泰国农村移民家庭，转而依靠非正规部门来提供生存所需的额外支持——在结构性调整计划广泛施加的监管之下，一个家庭成员在工厂或血汗工厂工作的收入微乎其微。学者们认为，1997年亚洲金融危机后泰国劳动改革的经济后果和社会成本落在了个人和家庭身上，而不是国家：随着该国劳动力市场越来越去监管化，提供适当生计的负担和责任从雇主和国家转移到了工人自己身上，他们的家庭不得不在非正规部门寻找工作，以弥补损失并补贴他们在正式部门工作的亲人在工资上的不足。这些经济变化的重压尤其对移民和城市贫困者造成了严重影响，结果导致非正规部门迅速扩张。[240]

Today, informal labour in Thailand is typically broken down into three main groups: subcontracted/self employed/home-based workers, service workers (including those that are employed in restaurants, as street vendors, masseuses, taxi drivers, and as domestic workers), and agricultural workers. Not included in these categories are those that work in entertainment, nightlife, and the sex industry. Individuals employed in these facets of the informal labour sector face additional vulnerabilities, including recruitment into circles of sexual exploitation and human trafficking.^[238] A 2012 study found that 64% of informal workers had not completed education beyond primary school. Many informal workers are also migrants, only some of which have legal status in the country. Because the informal labour sector is not recognised under the Labour Protection Act (LPA), informal workers are much more vulnerable to exploitation and unsafe working conditions. While some Thai labour laws provide minimal protections to domestic and agricultural workers, they are often weak and difficult to enforce. Furthermore, Thai social security policies fail to protect against the risks many informal workers face, including workplace accidents and compensation as well as unemployment and retirement insurance. Many informal workers are not legally contracted for their employment, and many do not make a living wage.^[238] Tens of thousands of migrants from neighboring countries face exploitation in a few industries,^[242] especially in fishing where slave-like conditions have been reported.^[243]
【参考译文】如今，泰国的非正规劳动力大致分为三大类：分包/自营/家庭作业工人，服务行业工人（包括餐馆员工、街头小贩、按摩师、出租车司机和家政工人），以及农业工人。未包含在这些分类中的是在娱乐、夜生活和性产业工作的人。在非正规劳动部门的这些领域工作的人面临着额外的风险，包括被卷入性剥削和人口贩卖的圈子。[238]一项2012年的研究发现，64%的非正规工人没有完成超过小学的教育。许多非正规工人也是移民，其中只有部分人在泰国具有合法身份。由于非正规劳动部门不在《劳工保护法》(LPA)的保护范围之内，非正规工人更容易遭受剥削和处于不安全的工作环境。虽然一些泰国劳动法律为家政和农业工人提供了最低限度的保护，但这些保护往往是薄弱的，难以实施。此外，泰国的社会保障政策未能保护非正规工人面临的风险，包括工伤事故赔偿、失业和退休保险。许多非正规工人没有签订合法的劳动合同，而且很多人挣不到维持生计的工资。[238]成千上万来自邻国的移民在几个行业中遭受剥削，[242]特别是在渔业中，据报道存在着类似奴隶制的条件。[243]

5.5 科学和技术 | Science and technology

Thailand ranked 43rd in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.^[244] The Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Research and Innovation and its agencies oversees the development of science, technology, and research in Thailand. According to the National Research Council of Thailand, the country devoted 1.1% of its GDP to the research and development of science in 2019, with over 166,788 research and development personnel in full-time equivalent that year.^[245][246]
【参考译文】2023年，泰国在全球创新指数中排名第43位。[244]高等教育、科学、研究与创新部及其下属机构负责监督泰国的科学发展、技术创新和研究活动。根据泰国国家研究委员会的数据，2019年泰国将其GDP的1.1%投入到了科学研究与发展的领域，当年有超过166,788名全职等效的研究与发展人员。[245][246]

6. 基础设施 | Infrastructure

6.1 交通 | Transportation

Main articles: Transport in Thailand and List of airports in Thailand【主条目：泰国交通和泰国机场列表】

The State Railway of Thailand (SRT) operates all of Thailand’s national rail lines. Krung Thep Aphiwat Central Terminal and Bangkok (Hua Lamphong) are the main termini of intercity routes. Phahonyothin and ICD Lat Krabang are the main freight terminals. As of 2017 SRT had 4,507 km (2,801 mi) of track, all of it meter gauge. Nearly all is single-track (4,097 km), although some important sections around Bangkok are double (303 km or 188 mi) or triple-tracked (107 km or 66 mi) and there are plans to extend this.^[247][248] Rail transport in Bangkok includes long-distance services, and some daily commuter trains running from and to the outskirts of the city during the rush hour, but passenger numbers have remained low. There are also four rapid transit rail systems in the capital: the BTS Skytrain, MRT, SRT Red Lines and the Airport Rail Link.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】泰国国家铁路局（SRT）运营泰国所有的国家级铁路线。Krung Thep Aphiwat中央终点站和曼谷（华南蓬）是城际列车的主要终点站。Phahonyothin和ICD Lat Krabang是主要的货运终端。截至2017年，SRT拥有4,507公里（2,801英里）的轨道，全部采用米轨。几乎所有的线路都是单轨（4,097公里），尽管围绕曼谷的一些重要路段已经实现双轨（303公里或188英里）或三轨（107公里或66英里），并且有计划进一步扩展。[247][248]曼谷的铁路运输包括长途服务，以及一些在高峰时段往返城市边缘的每日通勤列车，但乘客数量一直较低。首都还有四个快速轨道交通系统：BTS Skytrain、MRT、SRT红线和机场铁路连接线。[需要引证]

Thailand has 390,000 kilometres (240,000 miles) of highways.^[249] As of 2017, Thailand has over 462,133 roads and 37 million registered vehicles, 20 million of them motorbikes.^[250] A number of undivided two-lane highways have been converted into divided four-lane highways. Within the Bangkok Metropolitan Region, there are a number of controlled-access highways. There are 4,125 public vans operating on 114 routes from Bangkok alone.^[251] Other forms of road transport includes tuk-tuks, taxis — with over 80,647 registered taxis nationwide as of 2018,^[252] vans (minibus), motorbike taxis and songthaews.
【参考译文】泰国拥有390,000公里（240,000英里）的公路网络。[249]截至2017年，泰国拥有超过462,133条道路和3700万辆注册车辆，其中2000万辆是摩托车。[250]一些不分隔的双向车道公路已经被改造成分隔的四车道公路。在曼谷大都会区域内，有若干条控制出入的高速公路。仅从曼谷出发，就有4,125辆公共面包车在114条路线上运营。[251]其他形式的道路运输包括嘟嘟车（tuk-tuks）、出租车——截至2018年，全国注册的出租车超过80,647辆，[252]小型巴士（vans）、摩托车出租车和双排座货车（songthaews）。

As of 2012, Thailand has 103 airports with 63 paved runways, in addition to 6 heliports. The busiest airport in the country is Bangkok’s Suvarnabhumi Airport.^[253]
【参考译文】截至2012年，泰国拥有103个机场，其中有63条铺设好的跑道，此外还有6个直升机停机坪。该国最繁忙的机场是曼谷的素万那普机场。[253]

In Bangkok, there were two failed rapid rail projects Lavalin Skytrain and Bangkok Elevated Road and Train System, before Mass Rapid Transit Master Plan in Bangkok Metropolitan Region was endorsed by the cabinet on 27 September 1994 and implemented from 1995 to the present.^[254]
【参考译文】在曼谷，Lavalin Skytrain和曼谷高架道路及火车系统两个快速铁路项目失败后，1994年9月27日内阁批准了曼谷大都会区域的大众快速运输总体规划，并从1995年开始实施至今。[254]

6.2 能源 | Energy

Further information: Energy in Thailand【更多信息：泰国的能源】

75% of Thailand’s electrical generation is powered by natural gas in 2014.^[255] Coal-fired power plants produce an additional 20% of electricity, with the remainder coming from biomass, hydro, and biogas.^[255]
【参考译文】2014年，泰国电力生产的75%是由天然气驱动的。[255]燃煤发电厂额外产生了约20%的电力，剩余的部分来源于生物质能、水力和生物气体。[255]

Thailand produces roughly one-third of the oil it consumes. It is the second largest importer of oil in Southeast Asia. Thailand is a large producer of natural gas, with reserves of at least 10 trillion cubic feet. After Indonesia, it is the largest coal producer in Southeast Asia, but must import additional coal to meet domestic demand.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】泰国生产的石油大约只占其消耗量的三分之一。它是东南亚第二大石油进口国。泰国是天然气的重要生产国，已探明的天然气储备至少为10万亿立方英尺。在印尼之后，它是东南亚最大的煤炭生产国，但必须进口额外的煤炭以满足国内需求。[需要引证]

7. 人口统计 | Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Thailand / 主条目：泰国人口

Thailand has an estimated population of 65,975,198 as of July 2024;^[256] Thailand’s first census in 1909 found the population to be 8.2 million.^[257] Thailand’s population is largely rural, concentrated in the rice-growing areas of the central, northeastern and northern regions. About 44.2% of Thailand’s population lived in urban areas as of 2010, slowly increasing from 29.4% in the 1990 census and 31.1% in the 2000 census.^[258]
【参考译文】截至2024年7月，泰国估计人口为6597万5198人；[256]泰国首次人口普查是在1909年，当时人口为820万。[257]泰国的人口主要分布在乡村地区，集中在中部、东北部和北部的水稻种植区。根据2010年的数据，大约44.2%的泰国人口居住在城市地区，这一比例缓慢上升，从1990年人口普查的29.4%和2000年人口普查的31.1%。[258]

Thailand’s government-sponsored family planning program resulted in a dramatic decline in population growth from 3.1% in 1960 to around 0.4% today. In 1970, an average of 5.7 people lived in a Thai household; in 2022, the average Thai household size was 3 people.^[259] Now Thailand is an aged society, with more than 20% of its population aged over 60, and has low birth rate, posing economic challenges.^[260]
【参考译文】泰国政府资助的家庭计划项目导致了人口增长率从1960年的3.1%大幅下降到今天的约0.4%。1970年，一个典型的泰国家庭平均有5.7人；而在2022年，泰国家庭的平均规模为3人。[259]现在，泰国已经成为老龄化社会，超过20%的人口年龄在60岁以上，并且出生率低，这给经济带来了挑战。[260]

7.1 族群 | Ethnic groups

Further information: Ethnic groups in Thailand【更多信息：泰国的族群】

As of 2010, Thai people make up the majority of Thailand’s population (95.9%). The remaining 4.1% of the population are Burmese (2.0%), others (1.3%), and unspecified (0.9%).^[1]
【参考译文】截至2010年，泰国人构成了泰国人口的绝大多数（95.9%）。其余的4.1%人口中，缅甸人占2.0%，其他群体占1.3%，未指定群体占0.9%。[1]

According to genetic research, the present-day Thai people were divided into three groups: the northern group (Khon Mueang) are closely related to the Tai ethnic groups in southern China, the northeastern group (Isan people) are mixed Tai and several Austroasiatic-speaking ethnic groups, while the central and southern groups (formerly called Siamese) strongly share genetic profiles with the Mon people.^[37][38][39]
【参考译文】根据遗传学研究，现今的泰国人民可以分为三个主要族群：北方族群（Khon Mueang）与中国的泰族族群有着密切的亲缘关系；东北部族群（伊桑人）是泰族和几个南亚语系族群的混血；而中部和南部族群（以前称为暹罗人）与孟族人有强烈的基因联系。[37][38][39]

According to the Royal Thai Government’s 2011 Country Report to the UN Committee responsible for the International Convention for the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, available from the Department of Rights and Liberties Promotion of the Thai Ministry of Justice,^: 3 62 ethnic communities are officially recognized in Thailand. Twenty million Central Thai (together with approximately 650,000 Khorat Thai) made up approximately 20,650,000 (34.1 per cent) of the state’s population of 60,544,937^[261] at the time of completion of the Mahidol University Ethnolinguistic Maps of Thailand data (1997).^[262]
【参考译文】根据泰国皇家政府2011年提交给联合国负责《消除一切形式种族歧视国际公约》委员会的国家报告，泰国官方认可的民族社区共有62个。根据玛希隆大学泰国语言地图数据（1997年完成）[262]，在报告完成时，约2000万中部泰国人（加上大约65万的Khorat泰国人）占泰国总人口6054万的34.1%。[261]

The 2011 Thailand Country Report provides population numbers for mountain peoples (‘hill tribes’) and ethnic communities in the Northeast and is explicit about its main reliance on the Mahidol University Ethnolinguistic Maps of Thailand data.^[262] Thus, though over 3.288 million people in the Northeast alone could not be categorised, the population and percentages of other ethnic communities c. 1997 are known for all of Thailand and constitute minimum populations. In descending order, the largest (equal to or greater than 400,000) are a) 15,080,000 Lao (24.9 per cent) consisting of the Thai Lao (14 million) and other smaller Lao groups, namely the Thai Loei (400–500,000), Lao Lom (350,000), Lao Wiang/Klang (200,000), Lao Khrang (90,000), Lao Ngaew (30,000), and Lao Ti (10,000); b) six million Khon Muang (9.9 per cent, also called Northern Thais); c) 4.5 million Pak Tai (7.5 per cent, also called Southern Thais); d) 1.4 million Khmer Leu (2.3 per cent, also called Northern Khmer); e) 900,000 Malay (1.5%); f) 500,000 Nyaw (0.8 per cent); g) 470,000 Phu Thai (0.8 per cent); h) 400,000 Kuy/Kuay (also known as Suay) (0.7 per cent), and i) 350,000 Karen (0.6 per cent).^: 7–13 Thai Chinese, those of significant Chinese heritage, are 14% of the population, while Thais with partial Chinese ancestry comprise up to 40% of the population.^[263] Thai Malays represent 3% of the population, with the remainder consisting of Mons, Khmers and various “hill tribes“.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】2011年泰国国家报告提供了山区民族（“山地部落”）和东北部民族社区的人口数据，主要依赖于玛希隆大学泰国语言地图数据。[262]因此，尽管仅在东北部就有超过328万的人口无法归类，但泰国所有其他民族社区的大约1997年的人口和百分比是已知的，构成最低人口数。按降序排列，人数最多（等于或超过40万）的族群依次为：a) 1508万老挝人（24.9%），其中包括泰国老挝人（1400万）和其他较小的老挝族群，即泰国莱（40-50万）、老挝洛姆（35万）、老挝维昂/克朗（20万）、老挝克拉昂（9万）、老挝尼亚（3万）和老挝蒂（1万）；b) 600万Khon Muang人（9.9%，又称北泰人）；c) 450万Pak Tai人（7.5%，又称南泰人）；d) 140万Khmer Leu人（2.3%，又称北高棉人）；e) 90万马来人（1.5%）；f) 50万Nyaw人（0.8%）；g) 47万Phu Thai人（0.8%）；h) 40万Kuy/Kuay人（也称Suay，0.7%）；i) 35万卡伦人（0.6%）。[注释需要]具有显著中国血统的泰国华人占人口的14%，而部分中国血统的泰国人占总人口的比例高达40%。[263]泰国马来人占人口的3%，其余部分由孟族人、高棉人和各种“山地部落”组成。[需要引证]

Increasing numbers of migrants from neighbouring Myanmar, Laos, and Cambodia, as well as from Nepal and India, have pushed the total number of non-national residents to around 3.5 million as of 2009, up from an estimated 2 million in 2008.^[264] Some 41,000 Britons and 20,000 Australians live in Thailand.^[265][266]
【参考译文】来自邻近缅甸、老挝和柬埔寨的移民不断增加，以及来自尼泊尔和印度的移民，使得2009年非国民居民总数达到约350万，高于2008年估计的200万。[264]大约有4.1万英国人和2万澳大利亚人生活在泰国。[265][266]

7.3 人口中心 | Population centres

Further information: List of cities in Thailand【更多信息：泰国的城市】

主条目：泰国城市列表

7.4 语言 | Language

Main article: Languages of Thailand【主条目：泰国的语言】

The official language of Thailand is Thai, a Kra–Dai language closely related to Lao, Shan in Myanmar, and numerous smaller languages spoken in an arc from Hainan and Yunnan south to the Chinese border. It is the principal language of education and government and spoken throughout the country.^[267] The standard is based on the dialect of the central Thai people, and it is written in the Thai alphabet, an abugida script that evolved from the Khmer alphabet.^[268] Sixty-two languages were recognised by the Royal Thai Government.^[269] For the purposes of the national census, four dialects of Thai exist; these partly coincide with regional designations, such as Southern Thai and Northern Thai.^[267]
【参考译文】泰国的官方语言是泰语，这是一种属于高棉-傣语系的语言，与老挝语、缅甸的掸语以及从海南和云南南部到中国边境一带的众多小语种密切相关。泰语是教育和政府的主要语言，在全国范围内使用。[267]标准泰语基于中部泰国人的方言，书写使用泰文字母，这是一种源自高棉字母的音节文字。[268]泰国皇家政府承认了62种语言。[269]为了进行全国人口普查，泰国有四种方言存在；这些方言在一定程度上与地区划分相吻合，如南方泰语和北方泰语。[267]

The largest of Thailand’s minority languages is the Lao dialect of Isan spoken in the northeastern provinces. In the far south, Kelantan-Pattani Malay is the primary language of Malay Muslims. Varieties of Chinese are also spoken by the large Thai Chinese population, with the Teochew dialect best-represented. Numerous tribal languages are also spoken, including many Austroasiatic languages such as Mon, Khmer, and Mlabri; Austronesian languages such as Cham, Moken and Urak Lawoi’; Sino-Tibetan languages like Lawa, Akha, and Karen; and other Tai languages such as Phu Thai, and Saek. Hmong is a member of the Hmong–Mien languages, which is now regarded as a language family of its own.^[270][267]
【参考译文】泰国最大的少数民族语言是东北部省份使用的伊桑方言的老挝语。在遥远的南部，马来穆斯林主要使用吉兰丹-北大年马来语。大量泰国华人群体使用各种汉语方言，其中潮州话最为突出。还有许多部落语言被使用，包括多种南亚语系语言如孟语、高棉语和姆布利语；南岛语系语言如占语、莫肯语和乌鲁克劳伊语；汉藏语系语言如拉瓦语、阿卡语和卡伦语；以及其他泰语系语言如布泰语和色克语。苗语属于苗瑶语系，现在被视为一个独立的语言家族。[270][267]

7.5 宗教 | Religion

Main article: Religion in Thailand / 主条目：泰国宗教

The country’s most prevalent religion is Theravada Buddhism, which is an integral part of Thai identity and culture. Active participation in Buddhism is among the highest in the world. Thailand has the second-largest number of Buddhists in the world after China.^[272] According to the 2018 National Statistical Office data, 93.46% of the country’s population self-identified as Buddhists.^[271]
【参考译文】泰国最主要的宗教是上座部佛教，这是泰国身份和文化不可或缺的一部分。泰国人在佛教中的积极参与程度居世界前列。泰国是世界上佛教徒第二多的国家，仅次于中国。[272]根据2018年国家统计局的数据，该国93.46%的人口自认为是佛教徒。[271]

Muslims constitute the second largest religious group in Thailand, comprising 5.37% of the population in 2018.^[271] Islam is concentrated mostly in the country’s southernmost provinces: Pattani, Yala, Satun, Narathiwat, and part of Songkhla Chumphon, which are predominantly Malay, most of whom are Sunni Muslims. Christians represented 1.13% of the population in 2018, with the remaining population consisting of Hindus and Sikhs, who live mostly in the country’s cities. There is also a small but historically significant Jewish community in Thailand dating back to the 17th century.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】穆斯林构成了泰国第二大宗教团体，占2018年总人口的5.37%。[271]伊斯兰教主要集中在泰国最南部的省份：北大年、也拉、宋卡、那拉提瓦以及宋卡和春蓬的部分地区，这些地区主要是马来人，其中大多数是逊尼派穆斯林。2018年，基督徒占人口的1.13%，其余人口包括印度教徒和锡克教徒，他们主要居住在城市的地区。泰国还存在一个虽小但历史悠久的犹太社群，可追溯至17世纪。[需要引证]

The constitution does not name an official state religion, and provides for freedom of religion. There have been no widespread reports of societal abuses or discrimination based on religious belief or practice.^[273] Thai law officially recognizes five religious groups: Buddhists, Muslims, Brahmin-Hindus, Sikhs, and Christians.^[274] However, some laws are inspired from Buddhist practices, such as banning alcohol sales on religious holidays.^[275]
【参考译文】宪法没有规定国教，并保障宗教自由。目前没有广泛报道表明存在基于宗教信仰或实践的社会虐待或歧视行为。[273]泰国法律正式承认五大宗教团体：佛教徒、穆斯林、婆罗门-印度教徒、锡克教徒和基督徒。[274]然而，一些法律受到了佛教习俗的影响，例如在宗教节日禁止销售酒精。[275]

7.6 教育 | Education

Main article: Education in Thailand / 主条目：泰国教育

In 1995, as minister of education, Sukavich Rangsitpollaid out his plans for educational reform in Thailand. The goal of education reform is to realize the potential of Thai people to develop themselves for the better quality of life and to develop the nation for peaceful co-existence in the world community.^[276] The reform was considered a landmark movement after nearly 100 years of education under the previous system.^[277]
【参考译文】1995年，时任教育部长Sukavich Rangsitpol阐述了他在泰国教育改革的计划。教育改革的目标在于发掘泰国人民的潜力，使他们能够提升自己的生活质量，并为国家的发展和平融入世界社区做出贡献。[276]这次改革被认为是在近100年的旧教育体系之后的一个里程碑式的运动。[277]

Thailand’s youth literacy rate was 98.1% in 2015.^[278] Education is provided by a well-organised school system of kindergartens, primary, lower secondary and upper secondary schools, numerous vocational colleges, and universities. Education is compulsory up to and including age 14, while the government is mandated to provide free education through to age 17. The establishment of reliable and coherent curricula for its primary and secondary schools is subject to rapid changes. Issues concerning university entrance has been in constant upheaval for a number of years. The country is also one of the few that still mandates uniform up to the university years, which is still a subject of ongoing debate.^[279]
【参考译文】2015年，泰国青年识字率达到98.1%。[278]泰国的教育体系组织完善，包括幼儿园、小学、初中和高中，以及众多的职业学院和大学。教育义务至14岁，政府有义务提供免费教育直到17岁。对于其小学和中学可靠且连贯的课程设置，正在经历快速变化。关于大学入学的问题多年来一直处于不断的变动中。泰国是少数几个直至大学阶段仍强制要求穿校服的国家之一，这一规定仍然是一个持续辩论的话题。[279]

In 2013, the Ministry of Information and Communication Technology announced that 27,231 schools would receive classroom-level access to high-speed internet.^[280] However, the country’s educational infrastructure was still underprepared for online teaching, as smaller and more remote schools were particularly hindered by COVID-19 restrictions.^[281]
【参考译文】2013年，信息与通信技术部宣布，27,231所学校将获得教室级别的高速互联网接入。[280]然而，由于COVID-19的限制措施，泰国的教育基础设施在在线教学方面准备不足，尤其是较小和偏远地区的学校受到了特别大的影响。[281]

The number of higher education institutions in Thailand has grown over the past decades to 156 officially. The two top-ranking universities in Thailand are Chulalongkorn University and Mahidol University.^[282] Thai universities’ research output is still relatively low, even though the country’s journal publications increased by 20% between 2011 and 2016.^[283] Recent initiatives, such as the National Research University^[284] and Graduate research intensive university: VISTEC, are designed to strengthen Thailand’s national research universities.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】泰国的高等教育机构在过去几十年中增长至156所官方认证的机构。泰国排名前两位的大学是朱拉隆功大学和玛希隆大学。[282]尽管泰国的期刊出版物在2011年至2016年间增加了20%，但泰国大学的研究产出仍然相对较低。[283]近期的举措，如国家研究大学[NRU]和研究生研究密集型大学VISTEC，旨在加强泰国的国家研究型大学。[需要引证]

The private sector of education is well developed and significantly contributes to the overall provision of education. Thailand has the second highest number of English-medium private international schools in Southeast Asian Nations.^[285] Cram schools are especially popular for university entrance exams.^[286]
【参考译文】泰国的私立教育部门发展良好，对整体教育供给做出了重大贡献。泰国拥有东南亚国家联盟中第二多的英语授课的私立国际学校。[285]补习学校在大学入学考试中尤其受欢迎。[286]

Students in ethnic minority areas score consistently lower in standardised national and international tests.^{[287][288][289]} This is likely due to unequal allocation of educational resources, weak teacher training, poverty, and low Thai language skill, the language of the tests.^{[287][290][291]} As of 2020, Thailand was ranked 89th out of 100 countries globally for English proficiency.^[292]
【参考译文】少数民族地区的学生在标准化的国家和国际测试中得分普遍较低。[287][288][289]这可能是因为教育资源分配不均、教师培训薄弱、贫困以及泰语技能低下所致，而泰语是测试的语言。[287][290][291]截至2020年，泰国在全球英语熟练度排名中位列第89位，共100个国家参与排名。[292]

Thailand is the third most popular study destination in ASEAN. The number of international degree students in Thailand increased by 9.7 times between 1999 and 2012, from 1,882 to 20,309 students. Most of international students come from neighbor countries^[285] like China, Myanmar, Cambodia and Vietnam.^[293]
【参考译文】泰国是东盟第三受欢迎的学习目的地。1999年至2012年间，泰国的国际学位学生人数增长了9.7倍，从1,882人增加到20,309人。大多数国际学生来自邻国，如中国、缅甸、柬埔寨和越南。[293]

7.7 卫生健康 | Health

Main articles: Health in Thailand, Healthcare in Thailand, and Hospitals in Thailand
【主条目：泰国健康状况、泰国医疗保健和泰国医院】

Thailand ranks world’s sixth, and Asia’s first in the 2019 Global Health Security Index of global health security capabilities in 195 countries,^[294] making it the only developing country on the world’s top ten. Thailand had 62 hospitals accredited by Joint Commission International.^[295] In 2002, Bumrungrad became the first hospital in Asia to meet the standard.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】在2019年全球健康安全指数中，泰国在全球195个国家的全球健康安全能力排名第六，亚洲排名第一，[294]成为全球十大国家中唯一的发展中国家。泰国共有62家医院获得了国际联合委员会的认可。[295]2002年，邦伦格拉德医院成为亚洲首家达到此标准的医院。[需要引证]

Health and medical care is overseen by the Ministry of Public Health (MOPH), with total national expenditures on health amounting to 4.3 per cent of GDP in 2009. Non-communicable diseases form the major burden of morbidity and mortality, while infectious diseases including malaria and tuberculosis, as well as traffic accidents, are also important public health issues.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】健康和医疗服务由公共卫生部监管，2009年全国卫生总支出占GDP的4.3%。非传染性疾病构成了主要的疾病负担和死亡原因，而包括疟疾和结核病在内的传染病，以及交通事故，同样是重要的公共卫生问题。[需要引证]

In December 2018 the interim parliament voted to legalise the use of cannabis for medical reasons, making Thailand the first Southeast Asian country to allow the use of medical cannabis.^[296]
【参考译文】2018年12月，临时议会投票决定将大麻用于医疗目的合法化，使泰国成为东南亚首个允许使用医用大麻的国家。[296]

7.8 泰国华人

主条目：泰国华人

早在清朝时，华人就已经来到泰国谋生，并渐渐融入当地。泰国历史上建立吞武里王国的就是具有潮汕血统郑昭。如今，郑王像仍被泰国民众虔诚地供奉。泰国华商主要来自于广东潮汕地区。泰国的重要经济支柱都由华人把持，不少大型企业都是由华商创办。华人的经济地位相比当地泰族原住民较为优越。但因为泰国是个佛教国家，住民淳朴，对华人没有太多的种族对立。

泰国是东南亚国家中排华最轻微的，没有像印尼那样出现排华大屠杀和马来西亚的种族冲突。但为切断华人与母国的血脉联系，泰国政府禁止教授华文和使用华文。华人为求自保，都放弃原来的中国华语姓氏，而改用有相同意思的泰语文字来当作他们的新姓氏甚或采用当地姓氏。这运动后来称之为“改姓名运动”，加上冷战展开，泰国为防止共产主义扩散，对华人移民实施诸多限制。

随着冷战缓和及越战结束，中华人民共和国与泰国在1975年7月1日建立外交关系，经济合作日益增多，泰国允许恢复华文教学。泰国经济的起飞，也吸引了大批华人到泰国发展。华人在今天的泰国经济和政治中，更扮演着重要的角色，但大部分已融入泰国社会。泰国总理他信、阿披实、英拉、赛塔、泰国最大的商业集团正大集团的创始人谢氏兄弟都是华裔，华商在泰国的经济发展中拥有举足轻重的地位。

8. 文化 | Culture

Main article: Culture of Thailand【主条目：泰国文化】

Thai culture and traditions incorporate influences from India, China, Cambodia, and the rest of Southeast Asia. Thailand’s national religion, Theravada Buddhism, is central to modern Thai identity. Thai Buddhism has evolved over time to include many regional beliefs originating from Hinduism, animism, as well as ancestor worship. The official calendar in Thailand is based on the Eastern version of the Buddhist Era (BE). Thai identity today is a social construct of the Phibun regime in the 1940s.^{[298][299][300]}
【参考译文】泰国文化和传统融合了印度、中国、柬埔寨和东南亚其他地区的影响。泰国的国教小乘佛教是现代泰国人身份认同的核心。泰国佛教随着时间的推移而演变，包括许多源自印度教、万物有灵论以及祖先崇拜的地区信仰。泰国的官方日历基于佛教纪元 (BE) 的东方版本。今天的泰国人身份认同是 1940 年代披汶政权的社会建构。[298][299][300]

Several ethnic groups mediated change between their traditional local culture, national Thai, and global cultural influences. Overseas Chinese also form a significant part of Thai society, particularly in and around Bangkok. Their successful integration into Thai society has allowed them to hold positions of economic and political power. Thai Chinese businesses prosper as part of the larger bamboo network.^[301]
【参考译文】多个民族在其传统本土文化、泰国民族文化和全球文化影响之间促成了变革。海外华人也是泰国社会的重要组成部分，尤其是在曼谷及其周边地区。他们成功融入泰国社会，并掌握了经济和政治权力。泰国华人企业作为更大的竹林网络的一部分蓬勃发展。[301]

Respect for elderly and superiors (by age, position, monks, or certain professions) is Thai mores. As with other Asian cultures, respect towards ancestors is an essential part of Thai spiritual practice. Thais have a strong sense of social hierarchy, reflecting in many classes of honorifics. Elders have by tradition ruled in family decisions or ceremonies. Wai is a traditional Thai greeting, and is generally offered first by a person who is younger or lower in social status and position. Older siblings have duties to younger ones. Thais have a strong sense of hospitality and generosity.^[302]
【参考译文】尊敬长者和上级（无论是年龄、职位、僧侣或特定职业）是泰国社会习俗的一部分。如同其他亚洲文化，对祖先的敬重是泰国精神实践的重要组成部分。泰国有着强烈的社会等级观念，这体现在许多层次的敬语中。传统上，在家庭决策或仪式中，长辈拥有决定权。”合十礼”是一种传统的泰国问候方式，通常由年龄较小或社会地位较低的人先做。兄姐对弟妹有照顾的义务。泰国人有着强烈的热情好客与慷慨的精神。

Taboos in Thai culture include touching someone’s head or pointing with the feet, as the head is considered the most sacred and the foot the lowest part of the body.^[303]
【参考译文】在泰国文化中，禁忌包括触摸别人的头部或用脚指物，因为头部被认为是身体最神圣的部分，而脚则是最低下的部位。

8.1 美术 | Art

Main article: Thai art【主条目：泰国的美术】

The origins of Thai art were very much influenced by Buddhist art and by scenes from the Indian epics. Traditional Thai sculpture almost exclusively depicts images of the Buddha, being very similar with the other styles from Southeast Asia. Traditional Thai paintings usually consist of book illustrations, and painted ornamentation of buildings such as palaces and temples. Thai art was influenced by indigenous civilisations of the Mon and other civilisations. By the Sukothai and Ayutthaya period, Thai had developed into its own unique style and was later further influenced by the other Asian styles, mostly by Sri Lankan and Chinese. Thai sculpture and painting, and the royal courts provided patronage, erecting temples and other religious shrines as acts of merit or to commemorate important events.^[304]
【参考译文】泰国艺术的起源深受佛教艺术和印度史诗场景的影响。传统的泰国雕塑几乎完全描绘佛陀的形象，与其他东南亚风格非常相似。传统的泰国绘画通常包括书籍插图，以及宫殿和寺庙等建筑物的彩绘装饰。泰国艺术受到了本地文明如孟族和其他文明的影响。到了素可泰和阿育他亚时期，泰国艺术发展出了自己独特的风格，并后来进一步受到其他亚洲风格的影响，主要是斯里兰卡和中国风格。泰国的雕塑和绘画，以及皇室宫廷的赞助，建造寺庙和其他宗教圣地作为功德或纪念重要事件。

Traditional Thai paintings showed subjects in two dimensions without perspective. The size of each element in the picture reflected its degree of importance. The primary technique of composition is that of apportioning areas: the main elements are isolated from each other by space transformers. This eliminated the intermediate ground, which would otherwise imply perspective. Perspective was introduced only as a result of Western influence in the mid-19th century. Monk artist Khrua In Khong is well known as the first artist to introduce linear perspective to Thai traditional art.^[305]
【参考译文】传统的泰国绘画以二维形式展现主题，没有透视感。画面中每个元素的大小反映了其重要性程度。主要的构图技巧是对区域的分配：主要元素通过空间变换器相互隔离。这消除了中间地面，否则会暗示出透视效果。直到19世纪中期西方影响下，透视法才被引入。僧侣艺术家Khrua In Khong因其是首位将线性透视引入泰国传统艺术的艺术家而闻名。

The most frequent narrative subjects for paintings were or are: the Jataka stories, episodes from the life of the Buddha, the Buddhist heavens and hells, themes derived from the Thai versions of the Ramayana and Mahabharata, and scenes of daily life. Some of the scenes are influenced by Thai folklore instead of following strict Buddhist iconography.^[304]
【参考译文】绘画中最常见的叙事主题是：佛本生故事、佛陀生活片段、佛教的天堂与地狱、源自泰国版本的《罗摩衍那》和《摩诃婆罗多》的主题，以及日常生活场景。其中一些场景受到泰国民间传说的影响，而不是严格遵循佛教的象征体系。

8.2 建筑 | Architecture

Main article: Architecture of Thailand【主条目：泰国的建筑】

Architecture is the preeminent medium of the country’s cultural legacy and reflects both the challenges of living in Thailand’s sometimes extreme climate as well as, historically, the importance of architecture to the Thai people’s sense of community and religious beliefs. Influenced by the architectural traditions of many of Thailand’s neighbours, it has also developed significant regional variation within its vernacular and religious buildings.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】建筑是泰国文化遗产中的首要媒介，它不仅反映了在泰国有时极端气候条件下生活的挑战，也历史性地体现了建筑对于泰国人民社区意识和宗教信仰的重要性。受到泰国邻国建筑传统的诸多影响，泰国建筑在其民间和宗教建筑中也发展出了显著的地域差异。

The Ayutthaya Kingdom movement was one of the most fruitful and creative periods in Thai architecture. Architecture in the Ayutthaya period is designed to display might and riches so it has great size and appearance. The temples in Ayutthaya seldom built eaves stretching from the masterhead. The dominant feature of this style is sunlight shining into buildings. During the latter part of the Ayutthaya period, architecture was regarded as a peak achievement that responded to the requirements of people and expressed the gracefulness of Thainess.^[306]
【参考译文】阿育陀耶王国时期是泰国建筑最为繁荣和创新的阶段之一。阿育他亚时期的建筑旨在展示力量和财富，因此规模宏大且外观壮观。阿育他亚的寺庙很少建有从主楼延伸而出的屋檐。这一风格的主要特点是阳光可以直射入建筑物内。在阿育他亚后期，建筑被视为达到顶峰的成就，既满足了人们的需求，又体现了泰国风情的优雅。

Buddhist temples in Thailand are known as “wats“, from the Pāḷi vāṭa, meaning an enclosure: a temple has an enclosing wall that divides it from the secular world. Wat architecture demonstrates many differences in layout and style, but they all adhere to the same principles.^[307]
【参考译文】泰国的佛教寺庙被称为“wat”，来源于巴利语vāṭa，意为“围栏”：寺庙有一堵围墙将其与世俗世界隔开。wat建筑在布局和风格上表现出许多差异，但它们都遵循相同的基本原则。

8.3 文学 | Literature

Main article: Thai literature【主条目：泰国的文学】

Thai literature has had a long history. Even before the establishment of the Sukhothai Kingdom there existed oral and written works.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】泰国文学有着悠久的历史。早在素可泰王国建立之前，就已经存在口头和书面作品。

During the Sukhothai Kingdom, most literary works were written in simple prose with certain alliteration schemes. Major works include King Ram Khamhaeng Inscription describing life at the time, which is considered the first literary work in Thai script, but some historians questioned its authenticity.^[308] Trai Phum Phra Ruang, written in 1345 by King Maha Thammaracha I, expounds Buddhist philosophy based on a profound and extensive study with reference to over 30 sacred texts and could be considered the nation’s first piece of research dissertation.^[309]
【参考译文】在素可泰王国时期，大多数文学作品都是用带有一定头韵模式的简朴散文写成。重要的作品包括拉玛卡蒙国王的碑文，描述了当时的生活，被认为是泰文书写的第一部文学作品，但有些历史学家质疑其真实性。《Trai Phum Phra Ruang》，于1345年由Maha Thammaracha I国王撰写，阐述了基于广泛深入研究的佛教哲学，参考了超过30种圣典，可以被认为是国内首篇研究论文。

During the Ayutthaya Kingdom, new poetic forms were created, with different rhyme schemes and metres. It is common to find a combination of different poetic forms in one poetic work. Lilit Yuan Phai is a narrative poem describing the war between King Borommatrailokkanat of Ayutthaya and Prince Tilokkarat of Lan Na. One literary work is Kap He Ruea composed by Prince Thammathibet in the nirat tradition. Traditionally, the verse is sung during the colourful royal barge procession and has been the model for subsequent poets to emulate. The same prince also composed the greatly admired Kap Ho Khlong on the Visit to Than Thongdaeng and Kap Ho Khlong Nirat Phrabat.^[310] The Thon Buri Period produced Ramakian, a verse drama contributed by King Taksin the Great. The era marked the revival of literature after the fall of Ayutthaya.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】在阿育陀耶王国期间，创造了新的诗歌形式，具有不同的韵律和格律。在一首诗歌作品中找到多种诗歌形式的结合是很常见的。《Lilit Yuan Phai》是一部叙述诗，描述了阿育陀耶的Borommatrailokkanat国王与兰纳的Tilokkarat王子之间的战争。一部文学作品是《Kap He Ruea》，由Thammathibet王子按照nirat传统所作。传统上，这首诗在色彩斑斓的皇家龙舟游行中被吟唱，成为了后世诗人效仿的典范。同一位王子还创作了备受推崇的《Kap Ho Khlong》关于访问Than Thongdaeng和《Kap Ho Khlong Nirat Phrabat》。吞武里时期产生了《Ramakian》，这是由伟大的Taksin国王贡献的一部诗剧。这个时期标志着阿育陀耶沦陷后文学的复兴。

During the 18th century Rattanakosin period, which still fought with the Burmese, many of the early Rattanakosin works deal with war and military strategy. Some examples are Nirat Rop Phama Thi Tha Din Daeng, Phleng Yao Rop Phama Thi Nakhon Si Thammarat. In the performing arts, perhaps the most important dramatic achievement is the complete work of Ramakian by King Rama I. In addition, There were also verse recitals with musical accompaniment, such as Mahori telling the story of Kaki, Sepha relating the story of Khun Chang Khun Phaen. Other recitals include Sri Thanonchai. The most important Thai poet in this period was Sunthorn Phu (สุนทรภู่), known as “the bard of Rattanakosin” (Thai: กวีเอกแห่งกรุงรัตนโกสินทร์). Sunthorn Phu is best known for his epic poem Phra Aphai Mani, a versified fantasy-adventure novel, a genre of Siamese literature known as nithan kham klon (Thai: นิทานคำกลอน).^[310]
【参考译文】在18世纪的曼谷时期，泰国仍在与缅甸作战，许多早期曼谷作品涉及战争和军事策略。一些例子包括《Nirat Rop Phama Thi Tha Din Daeng》和《Phleng Yao Rop Phama Thi Nakhon Si Thammarat》。在表演艺术中，最重要的戏剧成就是由Rama I国王完成的完整的《Ramakian》作品。此外，还有配乐的诗歌朗诵，例如Mahori讲述Kaki的故事，Sepha讲述Khun Chang Khun Phaen的故事。其他朗诵作品包括《Sri Thanonchai》。这一时期最重要的泰国诗人是Sunthorn Phu，被称为“曼谷的吟游诗人”。Sunthorn Phu以其史诗般的诗歌《Phra Aphai Mani》而闻名，这是一种奇幻冒险小说，属于暹罗文学中称为nithan kham klon的体裁。

Some of the most well-known modern Thai writers include Kukrit Pramoj, Kulap Saipradit, (penname Siburapha), Suweeriya Sirisingh (penname Botan), Chart Korbjitti, Prabda Yoon and Duanwad Pimwana.^[311]
【参考译文】一些知名的现代泰国作家包括Kukrit Pramoj、Kulap Saipradit（笔名Siburapha）、Suweeriya Sirisingh（笔名Botan）、Chart Korbjitti、Prabda Yoon和Duanwad Pimwana。

8.4 音乐和舞蹈 | Music and dance

Main articles: Music of Thailand and Dance in Thailand【主条目：泰国音乐与泰国舞蹈】

Aside from folk and regional dances (southern Thailand’s Menora (dance) and Ramwong, for example), the two major forms of Thai classical dance drama are Khon and Lakhon nai. In the beginning, both were exclusively court entertainments and it was not until much later that a popular style of dance theatre, likay, evolved as a diversion for common folk.^[312]
【参考译文】除了民间和地方舞蹈（如泰国南部的Menora舞和Ramwong舞），泰国古典舞蹈戏剧的两大主要形式是Khon和Lakhon nai。起初，这两种舞蹈仅限于宫廷娱乐，直到很久之后，一种面向大众的舞蹈剧场形式——likay，才演变出来，成为普通民众的娱乐方式。

Folk dance forms include dance theater forms like likay, numerous regional dances (ram), the ritual dance ram muay, and homage to the teacher, wai khru. Both ram muay and wai khru take place before all traditional muay Thai matches. The wai is also an annual ceremony performed by Thai classical dance groups to honor their artistic ancestors.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】民间舞蹈形式包括像likay这样的舞蹈剧场形式，众多的地区性舞蹈（ram），仪式舞蹈ram muay，以及向老师致敬的wai khru。ram muay和wai khru都会在所有传统泰拳比赛前进行。wai khru也是一种每年由泰国古典舞蹈团体举行的仪式，以纪念他们的艺术先辈。

Thai classical music is synonymous with those stylised court ensembles and repertoires that emerged in their present form within the royal centers of Central Thailand some 800 years ago. These ensembles, while being influenced by older practices are today uniquely Thai expressions. While the three primary classical ensembles, the Piphat, Khrueang sai and Mahori differ in significant ways, they all share a basic instrumentation and theoretical approach. Each employs small ching hand cymbals and krap wooden sticks to mark the primary beat reference. Thai classical music has had a wide influence on the musical traditions of neighboring countries.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】泰国古典音乐与那些大约800年前在泰国中部王宫中心形成现貌的宫廷乐团和曲目同义。这些乐团虽然受到古老传统的影响，但今天已经成为独一无二的泰国表达方式。尽管三个主要的古典乐团——Piphat、Khrueang sai和Mahori在很多方面有所不同，但它们都共享基本的乐器配置和理论方法。每种乐团都使用小ching手钹和krap木棒来标记主要的节奏。泰国古典音乐对邻近国家的音乐传统有着广泛的影响。

孔剧（泰语：โขน）是泰国的传统舞蹈文化的代表。在古代，只有男性才能参演孔剧，并且只会在王宫内进行演出。舞蹈演员会戴上华丽的假面面具，在解说员的解说后起舞，舞姿矫若游龙。现在亦有由女性担任主角的孔剧，这种孔剧被称为“女孔剧”（โขนผู้หญิง）。

孔剧融合多种艺术于一身。目前还没有确切的证据能证明孔剧是在哪一个时期产生的，但是在大城王国那莱王统治的时期，爱情长诗帕罗赋（泰语：ลิลิตพระลอ）中对孔剧的描写，至少表明了在那个时期孔剧已经存在了。孔剧的名称来自泰语词汇“孔”（โขน），“孔”的来源尚未明确，但学界给出了四种解释。第一种解释是说“孔”是一种用来自印度的皮革而制成的乐器，外表和形状跟现代的鼓类似。 这种乐器曾经很流行，并且常用于当地传统表演。因此，它被认为是在孔剧中演奏的其中一种乐器，孔剧因而得名。第二种解释是说“孔”源于泰米尔语 “goll” 或者 “golumn”。在泰米尔语中，它表示的是性别，或者是与孔剧演员服装类似的一种衣服及装饰。第三种解释是指“孔”来自一种在表演中会出现的玩偶。第四种解释是指“孔”来自柬埔寨语，意为角色扮演。

孔剧的主角最初只能由男性饰演。女性只能扮演女神或者神明。然而，在现代，女性也可以出演猴子或者魔鬼角色。古时候，孔剧只在王室中表演。国王的儿子常常会扮演猴子或者是魔鬼。许多东南亚国家都有与孔剧类似的舞蹈，如缅甸、柬埔寨、老挝和马来西亚等。与这些国家的舞蹈不同，泰国孔剧更强调舞蹈动作，舞蹈手势能传达出很多意思，而且特定的角色有着特定的手势。孔剧需要演员从小开始接受舞蹈训练，这是为了让手脚灵活，从而使演员能够做出各种复杂的动作，如猴子后空翻。

孔剧以史诗故事（主要是罗摩衍那）为基础，有各种各样的故事和角色。其中最著名的故事是国王拉玛与十面魔王托萨之间的战争。十面魔王托萨抢走了国王漂亮的妻子悉达，在国王弟弟和神猴哈努曼的帮助下，国王打败了魔王，救回了悉达。

在这个故事中，孔剧演员常分为以下四类：人类主角、女神、魔鬼或夜叉以及猴子。

8.5 娱乐 | Entertainment

Main articles: Cinema of Thailand and Thai television soap opera【主条目：泰国电影与泰国电视肥皂剧】

Thai films are exported and exhibited in Southeast Asia.^[313] Thai cinema has developed its own unique identity and is now being internationally recognized.^[314] Films such as Ong-Bak: Muay Thai Warrior (2003) and Tom-Yum-Goong (2005), starring Tony Jaa, feature distinctive aspects of Thai martial arts “Muay Thai“.
【参考译文】泰国电影在东南亚地区出口并上映。泰国电影已发展出自己独特的身份，并开始在国际上获得认可。像《Ong-Bak: Muay Thai Warrior》（2003年）和《Tom-Yum-Goong》（2005年），主演托尼·贾（Tony Jaa），这些影片突显了泰国武术“泰拳”的独特方面。

Thai horror has always had a significant cult following. Shutter (2004) was one of the best-known Thai horror movies and was recognized worldwide.^[315] The Thai heist thriller film Bad Genius (2017) was one of the most internationally successful Thai films; it broke Thai film earning records in several Asian countries,^[316] Bad Genius won in 12 categories at the 27th Suphannahong National Film Awards, and also won the Jury Award at the 16th New York Asian Film Festival with a worldwide collection of more than $42 million.^[317]
【参考译文】泰国恐怖片一直拥有显著的忠实观众群体。《Shutter》（2004年）是最知名的泰国恐怖电影之一，全球范围内获得了认可。泰国抢劫惊悚片《天才枪手》（Bad Genius，2017年）是国际上最成功的泰国电影之一；它打破了亚洲多个国家的泰国电影票房纪录，《天才枪手》在第27届苏潘娜宏国家电影奖中赢得了12个奖项，并在第16届纽约亚洲电影节上获得了评委会奖，全球票房收入超过4.2亿美元。

Thailand television dramas, known as Lakorn, have become popular in Thailand and regionally.^[318] Many dramas tend to have a romantic focus, such as Khluen Chiwit, U-Prince, Ugly Duckling, The Crown Princess and teen dramas television series, such as 2gether: The Series, The Gifted, Girl From Nowhere, Hormones: The Series.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】泰国电视剧，被称为Lakorn，在泰国国内及区域内变得流行。许多电视剧倾向于有浪漫焦点，例如《命运》（Khluen Chiwit）、《U-Prince》系列、《丑小鸭》系列、《皇冠公主》以及青少年电视剧系列，如《2gether: The Series》、《The Gifted》、《Girl From Nowhere》、《荷尔蒙》系列。

泰国在音乐领域上，有“卢通歌曲女王”之称的彭普万·东詹等舞蹈艺术家^[40]，也有塔塔杨等泰国知名艺人。其音乐产业于2010年后期在亚洲崛起，有望成为继韩国、日本、中国流行音乐后第四大亚洲主流音乐产业。当中韩国女团BLACKPINK泰国籍成员Lisa在国际间享负盛名。日本国民偶像女团AKB48的曼谷姊妹团BNK48除了在泰国获得了空前成功，在亚洲偶像界中亦成为了瞩目的新星。BNK48成员亦在各方面的发展，例如电影、综艺和电视剧获得了国际间的肯定和认可。BNK48在亚洲的成功亦使其在清迈推出泰国第二组AKB48的姊妹团CGM48，同时亦吸引了多间娱乐公司在泰国推出日系和国际性的偶像团体，包括Sweat!16以及4EVE。

The entertainment industries are estimated to have directly contributed $2.1 billion in gross domestic product (GDP) to the Thai economy in 2011. They also directly supported 86,600 jobs.^[319] Amongst several Dance-pop artists who have made internationally successful can be mentioned “Lisa” Lalisa Manoban^[320] and Tata Young.
【参考译文】据估计，娱乐产业在2011年直接为泰国经济贡献了21亿美元的国内生产总值（GDP），并直接支持了86,600个工作岗位。在数位成功打入国际市场的舞曲流行艺术家之中，可以提及“Lisa”拉莉萨·马诺班（Lalisa Manoban）和塔塔·杨（Tata Young）。

8.6 饮食 | Cuisine

Further information: Thai cuisine / 主条目：泰国菜

Thai cuisine is one of the most popular in the world.^[321] Thai food blends five fundamental tastes: sweet, spicy, sour, bitter, and salty. Common ingredients include garlic, lemongrass, kaffir lime, galangal, turmeric, coriander, and coconut milk.^{[322][323][324][325][326]} Each region of Thailand has its specialities: kaeng khiao wan (green curry) in the central region, som tam (green papaya salad) in the northeast, khao soi in the north, and massaman curry in the south.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】泰国菜是世界上最受欢迎的美食之一。泰国食物融合了五种基本口味：甜、辣、酸、苦和咸。常见的食材包括大蒜、柠檬草、香茅、姜黄、香菜和椰奶。泰国的每个地区都有其特色菜肴：中部地区的绿咖喱（kaeng khiao wan），东北部的青木瓜沙拉（som tam），北部的咖喱面（khao soi），以及南部的马沙曼咖喱（massaman curry）。

泰国菜的特点是讲究酸、辣、咸、甜、苦五味的互相平衡，通常以咸、酸、辣为主并带着一点甜，而苦味则隐隐约约在背后。首次尝试泰国菜的外国人都会觉得味道很独特，因为五种味道同时显现在舌头上，而且有很多调料是东南亚特有的。泰国菜用调料的特点是整体来说善用椰奶、九层塔、香茅、泰国青柠（又称青柠菜）和辣椒。

In 2017, seven Thai dishes appeared on a list of the “World’s 50 Best Foods”— an online worldwide poll by CNN Travel. Thailand had more dishes on the list than any other country. They were: tom yam goong (4th), pad Thai (5th), som tam (6th), massaman curry (10th), green curry (19th), Thai fried rice (24th) and mu nam tok (36th).^[327] Two desserts were also listed in CNN’s 50 Best Desserts Around The World: mango sticky rice and tub tim krob.^[328]
【参考译文】2017年，七道泰国菜出现在CNN旅游频道评选的“世界50大美食”榜单上，泰国是上榜菜品最多的国家。这些菜品包括：冬阴功汤（第4位）、泰式炒河粉（第5位）、青木瓜沙拉（第6位）、马沙曼咖喱（第10位）、绿咖喱（第19位）、泰式炒饭（第24位）和烤猪肉沙拉（第36位）。CNN评选的“世界50大甜点”中也有两种泰国甜品上榜：芒果糯米饭和红宝石甜汤（tub tim krob）。

The staple food in Thailand is rice, particularly jasmine rice, which forms part of almost every meal. Thailand is a leading exporter of rice, and Thais consume over 100 kg of milled rice per person per year.^[329] Thailand is also the world leader in edible insect industry^[330] and well known for its street food; Bangkok is sometimes called the street food capital of the world.^[331][332]
【参考译文】泰国的主要粮食是大米，尤其是茉莉香米，几乎每顿饭都有它的身影。泰国是大米的主要出口国，泰国人均消费精米超过100公斤/年。泰国也是食用昆虫产业的世界领导者，并以其街头小吃闻名；曼谷有时被称为世界街头美食之都。

泰国人的正餐是以米饭为主食（米饭可以是泰国香米或糯米），佐以一、两道泰式咖喱、一条鱼或一些肉、一份汤和一份沙拉。顺序并没有什么讲究。汤对泰国人来说是配饭的一道菜，著名的泰国汤有冬荫功，分为清汤和加椰浆的浓汤。

由于泰国位于气候潮湿和炎热的热带地区，所以各种蔬菜和水果都极其丰富。北部有山河，南部有地峡，两边有海，而中部的田地肥沃，国家丰富的资源可以在国民的饮食中看得出。泰国菜色彩鲜艳而且名种出产都极为鲜味。

8.7 计量单位 | Units of measurement

Further information: Thai units of measurement【更多信息参见：泰国的计量单位】

Thailand generally uses the metric system, but traditional units of measurement for land area are used, and imperial units of measurement are occasionally used for building materials. Years are numbered as B.E. (Buddhist Era) in educational settings, civil service, government, contracts, and newspaper datelines. However, in banking, and increasingly in industry and commerce, standard Western year (Christian or Common Era) counting is the standard practice.^[333]
【参考译文】泰国普遍采用公制系统，但对于土地面积的传统测量单位仍然在使用，而在建筑材料上偶尔也会使用英制单位。在教育环境、公务员系统、政府、合同以及报纸的日期标注中，年份编号使用的是BE（佛历）。然而，在银行业，以及越来越多的工业和商业领域中，标准的西元年（基督纪元或通用纪年）计数已成为通行做法。

8.8 体育运动 | Sports

See also: Thailand at the Olympics, Rugby union in Thailand, Golf in Thailand, Football in Thailand, and List of sporting events held in Thailand
【参见：泰国在奥林匹克运动会、泰国的橄榄球联盟、泰国的高尔夫、泰国的足球，以及在泰国举办的体育赛事列表。】

Muay Thai (lit. “Thai boxing”) is a combat sport that uses stand-up striking along with various clinching techniques. Muay Thai became widespread internationally in the late-20th to 21st century. Famous practitioners include Buakaw Banchamek, Samart Payakaroon, Dieselnoi Chor Thanasukarn and Apidej Sit-Hirun. Buakaw Banchamek has probably brought more international interest in Muay Thai than any other fighter.^[334]
【参考译文】泰拳（字面意思为“泰国拳击”）是一种站立打击与各种抱摔技术相结合的搏击运动。泰拳在20世纪末至21世纪初在国际上广泛传播。著名选手包括Buakaw Banchamek、Samart Payakaroon、Dieselnoi Chor Thanasukarn和Apidej Sit-Hirun。Buakaw Banchamek可能比任何其他拳手都吸引了更多的国际对泰拳的关注。

Association football has overtaken Muay Thai as the most widely followed sport in Thailand. The Thailand national football team has played the AFC Asian Cup six times and reached the semifinals in 1972. The country has hosted the Asian Cup twice, in 1972 and in 2007. The 2007 edition was co-hosted together with Indonesia, Malaysia and Vietnam. Another widely enjoyed pastime, and once a competitive sport, is kite flying.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】足球已经超越泰拳成为泰国最受关注的运动。泰国国家足球队六次参加亚洲杯，并在1972年进入半决赛。该国两次主办亚洲杯，分别在1972年和2007年。2007年的比赛与印度尼西亚、马来西亚和越南共同主办。放风筝曾经是一项竞技运动，现在是一种广受欢迎的消遣活动。

Volleyball is rapidly growing as one of the most popular sports. The women’s team has often participated in the World Championship, World Cup, and World Grand Prix Asian Championship. They have won the Asian Championship twice and Asian Cup once. By the success of the women’s team, the men’s team has been growing as well.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】排球正迅速成为最受欢迎的运动之一。女子国家队经常参加世界锦标赛、世界杯和世界大奖赛亚洲锦标赛。她们曾两次赢得亚洲锦标赛冠军和一次亚洲杯冠军。由于女子队的成功，男子队也在不断壮大。

Takraw (Thai: ตะกร้อ) is a sport native to Thailand, in which the players hit a rattan ball and are only allowed to use their feet, knees, chest, and head to touch the ball. Sepak takraw is a form of this sport which is similar to volleyball. A rather similar game but played only with the feet is buka ball.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】藤球（Takraw）是泰国本土的一项运动，球员们击打藤球，只允许用脚、膝盖、胸部和头部接触球。Sepak takraw是这项运动的一种形式，类似于排球。另一种类似的游戏，但仅用脚玩的是buka ball。

Snooker has enjoyed increasing popularity in Thailand in recent years, with interest in the game being stimulated by the success of Thai snooker player James Wattana in the 1990s.^[335] Other notable Thai players include Ratchayothin Yotharuck, Noppon Saengkham and Dechawat Poomjaeng.^[336]
【参考译文】近年来，斯诺克在泰国越来越受欢迎，这得益于泰国斯诺克选手James Wattana在1990年代的成功所带来的游戏兴趣。其他著名的泰国选手包括Ratchayothin Yotharuck、Noppon Saengkham和Dechawat Poomjaeng。

Rugby is also a growing sport in Thailand with the Thailand national rugby union team rising to be ranked 61st in the world.^[337] Thailand became the first country in the world to host an international 80 welterweight rugby tournament in 2005.^[338] The national domestic Thailand Rugby Union (TRU) competition includes several universities as well as local sports clubs like the British Club of Bangkok, the Southerners Sports Club (Bangkok) and the Royal Bangkok Sports Club.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】橄榄球在泰国也正在成长，泰国国家橄榄球队的排名上升至世界第61位。2005年，泰国成为世界上第一个举办国际80公斤级橄榄球锦标赛的国家。泰国橄榄球联盟（TRU）的国内联赛包括几所大学以及当地的体育俱乐部，如曼谷英国俱乐部、Southerners体育俱乐部（曼谷）和皇家曼谷体育俱乐部。

Thailand has been called the golf capital of Asia.^[339] The country attracts a large number of golfers from Japan, Korea, Singapore, South Africa, and Western countries.^[340] The growing popularity of golf, especially among the middle classes and immigrants, is evident as there are more than 200 world-class golf courses nationwide,^[341] and some of them are chosen to host PGA and LPGA tournaments, such as Amata Spring Country Club, Alpine Golf and Sports Club, Thai Country Club, and Black Mountain Golf Club.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】泰国被誉为亚洲的高尔夫之都。该国吸引了大量来自日本、韩国、新加坡、南非和西方国家的高尔夫球手。高尔夫运动的日益普及，尤其是在中产阶级和移民中，很明显，全国有200多个世界级的高尔夫球场，其中一些被选为PGA和LPGA巡回赛的举办地，如Amata Spring乡村俱乐部、Alpine高尔夫和体育俱乐部、泰国乡村俱乐部和Black Mountain高尔夫俱乐部。

Basketball is a growing sport in Thailand, especially on the professional sports club level. The Chang Thailand Slammers won the 2011 ASEAN Basketball League Championship.^[342] The Thailand national basketball team had its most successful year at the 1966 Asian Games where it won the silver medal.^[343]
【参考译文】篮球在泰国正在增长，特别是在职业体育俱乐部层面。Chang Thailand Slammers赢得了2011年东盟篮球联赛冠军。泰国国家篮球队在1966年亚运会上取得了最大成功，赢得了银牌。

Other sports in Thailand are slowly growing as the country develops its sporting infrastructure. The success in sports like weightlifting and taekwondo at the last two summer Olympic Games has demonstrated that boxing is no longer the only medal option for Thailand.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】随着泰国体育基础设施的发展，其他运动项目也在缓慢增长。在最近两届夏季奥运会上，像举重和跆拳道这样的运动取得的成功表明，拳击不再是泰国唯一的奖牌选择。

The well-known Lumpinee Boxing Stadium originally sited at Rama IV Road near Lumphini Park hosted its final Muay Thai boxing matches on 8 February 2014 after the venue first opened in December 1956. From 11 February 2014, the stadium will relocate to Ram Intra Road, due to the new venue’s capacity.^[344]
【参考译文】著名的仑披尼拳击场原址位于拉玛四路附近，靠近仑披尼公园，于2014年2月8日举办了最后一场泰拳比赛，该场地自1956年12月首次开放以来，见证了无数的泰拳对决。从2014年2月11日起，拳击场将迁移到叻喃隆路，原因是新场地的更大容量。

Thammasat Stadium is a multi-purpose stadium in Bangkok, currently used mostly for football matches. It was built for the 1998 Asian Games. Rajamangala National Stadium is the biggest sporting arena in Thailand, with a capacity of 65,000. The stadium was built in 1998 for the 1998 Asian Games and is the home stadium of the Thailand national football team.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】泰国法政大学体育场是一个位于曼谷的多功能体育场，目前主要用于足球比赛。它是为了1998年亚运会而建造的。拉加曼加拉国家体育场是泰国最大的体育场馆，可容纳65,000人。这座体育场同样是在1998年为亚运会而建，是泰国国家足球队的主场。

8.9 主要节庆

主条目：泰国节日

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