越南 / Vietnam -（全文）中英文维基百科词条融合

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This article contains Vietnamese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of chữ Nôm, chữ Hán and chữ Quốc ngữ.
【参考译文】本文包含越南语文本。如果没有适当的渲染支持，您可能会看到问号、方框或其他符号，而不是喃字、汉字和国语字。

0. 概述

【辽观注】此标题是我们在搬运、整合过程中添加的。

0.1 文字说明

【辽观注】此标题是我们在搬运、整合过程中添加的。

越南社会主义共和国（越南语：Cộng hòa Xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam, 聆听^ⓘ, 共和社會主義越南），通称越南（越南语：Việt Nam），是位于东南亚的中南半岛东端的社会主义国家，北邻中华人民共和国，西接柬埔寨和老挝，拥有超过1亿人口，位居世界第16名。越南的首都是河内市，最大城市是胡志明市。越南政治上采一党专政，执政党越南共产党是目前越南境内唯一的合法政党。越南是汉字文化圈诸国之一，同时也是东南亚国家联盟^[7][8]、世界贸易组织、亚洲太平洋经济合作组织、法语圈国际组织成员及未来11国之一。

Vietnam,^[e][f] officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam,^[g] is a country at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of about 331,000 square kilometres (128,000 sq mi) and a population of over 100 million, making it the world’s fifteenth-most populous country. One of the two Marxist-Leninist states in Southeast Asia,^[h] Vietnam shares land borders with China to the north, and Laos and Cambodia to the west. It shares maritime borders with Thailand through the Gulf of Thailand, and the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia through the South China Sea. Its capital is Hanoi and its largest city is Ho Chi Minh City (commonly known as Saigon).
【参考译文】越南[e][f]，正式名称为越南社会主义共和国[g]，是位于东南亚大陆东部边缘的一个国家，面积约 331,000 平方公里（128,000 平方英里），人口超过 1 亿，是世界第十五大人口大国。越南是东南亚两个马克思列宁主义国家之一[h]，北部与中国接壤，西部与老挝和柬埔寨接壤。它通过泰国湾与泰国接壤，通过南中国海与菲律宾、印度尼西亚和马来西亚接壤。其首都是河内，最大城市是胡志明市（俗称西贡）。

【英文词条原注e】Vietnamese: Việt Nam [vîət nāːm] ^ⓘ

【英文词条原注f】The spelling “Viet Nam” or the full Vietnamese form “Việt Nam” is sometimes used in English by local and government-operated media. “Viet Nam” is, in fact, formally designated and recognized by the Government of Vietnam, the United Nations and the International Organization for Standardization as the standardized country name. See also other spellings.
【参考译文】当地和政府经营的媒体有时会在英文中使用“Viet Nam”的拼写或越南语的完整形式“Việt Nam”。事实上，“Viet Nam”已被越南政府、联合国和国际标准化组织正式指定并确认为标准化的国名。另见其他拼写方式。

【英文词条原注g】Alternatively the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam with a different spelling
【参考译文】或者，拼写不同的“越南社会主义共和国（Socialist Republic of Viet Nam）”

【英文词条原注h】The other one being Laos
【参考译文】另一个是老挝。

Vietnam was inhabited by the Paleolithic age, with states established in the first millennium BC on the Red River Delta in modern-day northern Vietnam. The Han dynasty annexed Northern and Central Vietnam under Chinese rule from 111 BC, until the first dynasty emerged in 939.
【参考译文】越南自旧石器时代就有人居住，公元前1千年在今天的越南北部红河三角洲建立了国家。从公元前111年起，汉朝吞并了在中国统治下的越南北部和中部，直到939年第一个王朝的出现。

越南北部古为百越，南部为占婆。前111年南越国被汉朝灭亡后，越南北部被置于中国皇朝统治之下达数个世纪之久。在此期间，中国文化大量输入越南。10世纪越南摆脱中国统治正式建国，其后经历多个朝代，有分有合，15世纪时曾经被明朝直接统治20多年。

Successive monarchical dynasties absorbed Chinese influences through Confucianism and Buddhism, and expanded southward to the Mekong Delta, conquering Champa. During most of the 17th and 18th centuries, Vietnam was effectively divided into two domains of Đàng Trong and Đàng Ngoài.
【参考译文】随后的君主制王朝通过儒家思想和佛教吸收了中国的影响，并向南扩张到湄公河三角洲，征服了占婆。在17世纪和18世纪的大部分时间里，越南实际上被划分为内垧和外垧两个领域。

The Nguyễn—the last imperial dynasty—surrendered to France in 1883. In 1887, its territory was integrated into French Indochina as three separate regions. In the immediate aftermath of World War II, the nationalist coalition Viet Minh, led by the communist revolutionary Ho Chi Minh, launched the August Revolution and declared Vietnam’s independence from the Empire of Japan in 1945.
【参考译文】阮朝——最后一个封建王朝——于1883年向法国投降。1887年，越南领土被划分为三个独立区域，并入法属印度支那。二战结束后，以共产主义革命家胡志明为首的民族联合阵线越南民主共和国发动了八月革命，并于1945年宣布越南脱离日本帝国独立。

19世纪中晚期，法国征服越南，对越施行殖民统治。1945年8月，越南独立同盟会发动八月革命，宣布越南独立。1954年，越南独立同盟会在奠边府战役中打败法国军队，迫使法国势力撤离并承认越南独立，随后的日内瓦会议约定以北纬17度线为界两越分立，北方由越南民主共和国（北越）统治，南方则先后建立了越南国及越南共和国（南越）。翌年越南战争爆发，由西方阵营国家支持的南越对抗东方阵营国家支持的北越。美国在战争中蒙受严重损失，逐步退出战场。1975年4月30日，北越攻占南越首都西贡，1976年国家统一。

1977年，越南加入联合国。越南统一后，仍面临着经济落后的问题。1986年越共领导层决定实施革新开放，从单一的计划经济，开放为市场经济，并发展多元化商品经济，此后经济形势开始好转，2022年越南GDP总量超菲律宾、马来西亚，在东盟国家中仅次于印尼，泰国，新加坡^[9]。冷战结束后，越南经济快速发展，并逐渐摆脱外交困境，1995年加入东盟，1998年加入亚太经合会，2007年加入世界贸易组织^[10]。但越南仍在贫富差距和医疗卫生方面面临着诸多问题^{[11][12][13][14][15]}，亦有西方国家批评越南的人权状况，与邻国的领土争端问题亦再次显现。

Vietnam went through prolonged warfare in the 20th century. After World War II, France returned to reclaim colonial power in the First Indochina War, from which Vietnam emerged victorious in 1954. As a result of the treaties signed between the Viet Minh and France, Vietnam was also separated into two parts. The Vietnam War began shortly after, between the communist North Vietnam, supported by the Soviet Union and China, and the anti-communist South Vietnam, supported by the United States. Upon the North Vietnamese victory in 1975, Vietnam reunified as a unitary socialist state under the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) in 1976. An ineffective planned economy, a trade embargo by the West, and wars with Cambodia and China crippled the country further. In 1986, the CPV initiated economic and political reforms similar to the Chinese economic reform, transforming the country to a socialist-oriented market economy. The reforms facilitated Vietnamese reintegration into the global economy and politics.
【参考译文】20 世纪，越南经历了长期的战争。第二次世界大战后，法国在第一次印度支那战争中重新夺回殖民统治，越南于 1954 年取得胜利。由于越盟与法国签署条约，越南也被分裂为两个部分。不久之后，越南战争爆发，交战双方是苏联和中国支持的共产主义北越和美国支持的反共产主义南越。1975 年北越胜利后，越南于 1976 年在越南共产党 (CPV) 领导下统一为一个社会主义国家。无效的计划经济、西方的贸易禁运以及与柬埔寨和中国的战争进一步削弱了该国。1986 年，越南共产党发起了类似于中国经济改革的经济和政治改革，将该国转变为社会主义导向的市场经济。这些改革促进了越南重新融入全球经济和政治。

Vietnam is a developing country with a lower-middle-income economy. It has high levels of corruption, censorship, environmental issues and a poor human rights record; the country ranks among the lowest in international measurements of civil liberties, freedom of the press, and freedom of religion and ethnic minorities. It is part of international and intergovernmental institutions including the ASEAN, the APEC, the CPTPP, the Non-Aligned Movement, the OIF, and the WTO. It has assumed a seat on the United Nations Security Council twice.
【参考译文】越南是一个中低收入水平的发展中国家。该国的腐败、审查制度、环境问题和人权记录问题都很严重；在国际公民自由、新闻自由以及宗教和少数民族自由方面的评估中，越南的排名非常低。越南是东盟、亚太经合组织、全面与进步跨太平洋伙伴关系协定、不结盟运动、法语国家国际组织以及世界贸易组织等国际和政府间机构的一部分。越南曾两次担任联合国安理会理事国。

0.2 概况表格

【辽观注】此标题是我们在搬运、整合过程中添加的。

Socialist Republic of Vietnam Cộng hòa Xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam(Vietnamese) 越南社会主义共和国
Motto【国家格言】: Độc lập – Tự do – Hạnh phúc “Independence – Freedom – Happiness” “独立，自由，幸福”
Anthem【国歌】: Tiến Quân Ca “The Song of the Marching Troops” / 《进军歌》点击这里访问维基百科音频
Capital【首都】	Hanoi / 河内市 21°2′N 105°51′E
Largest city 【最大城市】	Ho Chi Minh City / 胡志明市 10°48′N 106°39′E
Official language 【官方语言】	Vietnamese[1] / 越南语（国语）[1]
Ethnic groups (2019) / 族群	85.32% Kinh Vietnamese / 京族[2] 14.68% other[2] / 53个少数民族
Religion (2019) 【宗教】	86.32% no religion / folk | 无宗教 / 民间信仰 6.1% Catholicism【天主教】 4.79% Buddhism | 佛教 1.02% Hoahaoism | 和好教 1% Protestantism【基督新教】 0.58% Caodaism | 高台教 0.07% Islam【伊斯兰教】 0.12% other[2][a]【其他】
Demonym(s) 【对当地人的称呼（英语）】	Vietnamese Viet (colloquial)【口语】
Government【政体】	Unitary Marxist–Leninist one-party socialist republic[5] 【单一制马克思列宁主义一党社会主义共和国[5]】
• General Secretary and President[b] / 越共中央总书记 国家主席	Tô Lâm / 苏林[4]
• Prime Minister / 政府总理	Phạm Minh Chính / 范明政
• National Assembly Chairman / 国会主席	Trần Thanh Mẫn / 陈青敏
Legislature【立法机构】	National Assembly / 越南国会
Formation【建国】
• Văn Lang【文郎】	7th century BC【公元前7世纪】
• Âu Lạc【瓯雒】	3rd century BC【公元前3世纪】
• Han’s annexation【汉朝的吞并】	111 BC【公元前111年】
• Independence from China 【从中国独立】	939
• Regaining independence 【重新获得独立】	1428
• Nguyễn‘s unification 【阮朝统一】	1802
• Protectorate Treaty 【保护国条约】	25 August 1883【1883年8月25日】
• Declaration of Independence 【宣布独立】	2 September 1945【1945年9月2日】
• North–South division 【南北分治】	21 July 1954【1954年7月21日】
• End of Vietnam War【越南战争结束】	30 April 1975【1975年4月30日】
• Reunification【重新统一】	2 July 1976【1976年7月2日】
• Đổi Mới【革新开放】	18 December 1986【1986 年 12 月 18 日】
• Current constitution【现行宪法】	28 November 2013[c]【2013年11月28日】
Area【面积】
• Total【总面积】	331,344.82[7][d] km2 (127,932.95 sq mi) (66th)
• Water (%)【水域占比】	6.38
Population【人口】
• 2023 estimate【2023年估计值】	100,300,000[10][11] (15th) 【一亿零三百万[10][11] （第15位）】
• 2019 census【2019年普查值】	96,208,984[2]
• Density【人口密度】	298/km2 (771.8/sq mi) (49th)
GDP (PPP) 【国内生产总值（购买力平价）】	2024 estimate【2024年估计值】
• Total【总量】	$1.559 trillion[12] (26th) 【1.559万亿美元[12] （第26位）】
• Per capita【人均】	$15,470[12] (106th) 【15,470美元[12] （第106位）】
GDP (nominal) 【国内生产总值（名义/汇率）】	2024 estimate【2024年估计值】
• Total【总值】	$465.814 billion[12] (33th) 【4658.14亿美元[12] （第33位）】
• Per capita【人均】	$4,623[12] (119th) 【4,623美元[12] （第119位）】
Gini (2020)【基尼系数（2020年）】	36.8[13] medium inequality【中度不平等】
HDI (2022) 【人类发展指数（2022年）】	0.726[14] high (107th)【高（全球第107名）】
Currency【货币】	Vietnamese đồng (₫) (VND)【越南盾】
Time zone【时区】	UTC+07:00 (Vietnam Standard Time) 【东七区（越南标准时间）】
Drives on / 行驶方位	right【右侧】
Calling code【电话区号】	+84
ISO 3166 code / ISO 3166码	VN
Internet TLD / 互联网顶级域	.vn

【英文词条原注a】The census data was also cited in the United States Department of State’s 2022 Report on International Religious Freedom regarding Vietnam. However, the report indicated that this figure did not include the potentially significant number of individuals who engage in Buddhist practices to a certain extent without being formally participated in a Buddhist religious group.^[3] An earlier United States Department of State report from 2019 revealed that 26.4 percent of the population identified with an organized religion. This breakdown included 14.9 percent identifying as Buddhist, 7.4 percent as Roman Catholic, 1.5 percent as Hoa Hao Buddhist, 1.2 percent as Cao Dai, and 1.1 percent as Protestant. The remainder did not identify with any religious group or observed beliefs such as animism or the reverence of ancestors, tutelary and protective saints, national heroes, or esteemed local figures.^[4]
【参考译文】美国国务院在《2022年国际宗教自由报告》中也引用了该普查数据。但报告指出，这一数字可能并未包括那些在一定程度上参与佛教实践但并未正式加入佛教宗教团体的个人，而这一数量可能相当可观。[3] 美国国务院2019年的一份早期报告显示，26.4%的人口属于有组织的宗教。这一细分包括14.9%的人口信奉佛教，7.4%信奉罗马天主教，1.5%信奉和好佛教，1.2%信奉高台教，1.1%信奉新教。其余人口则不属于任何宗教团体，或信仰诸如万物有灵论、祖先崇拜、守护和保护圣人、民族英雄或受人尊敬的当地人物等信仰。[4]

【英文词条原注b】The most powerful political position is General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam, not President. The general secretary controls the Politburo and the Secretariat, Vietnam’s top decision-making bodies, making the officeholder the de facto leader of Vietnam.
【参考译文】最有权力的政治职位是越南共产党总书记，而不是国家主席。总书记控制着越南最高决策机构政治局和秘书处，使总书记成为越南事实上的领导人。

【英文词条原注c】In effect since 1 January 2014^[6]
【参考译文】自2014年1月1日起生效[6]

【英文词条原注d】The area of Vietnam mentioned here is based on the land area statistics provided by the Vietnamese government. However, alternative figures exist. According to the CIA World Factbook, Vietnam’s total area is 331,210 square kilometers,^[8] while the BBC cites a slightly different measurement of 331,699 square kilometers.^[9]
【参考译文】这里提到的越南面积是基于越南政府提供的陆地面积统计数据。但还存在其他数据。根据中央情报局《世界概况》，越南总面积为331,210平方公里，[8]而英国广播公司则给出了一个略有不同的数据，即331,699平方公里。[9]

1. 名称来源 | Etymology

Main article: Names of Vietnam【主条目：越南的名称】

The name Việt Nam (pronounced [viə̂tˀ nāːm], chữ Hán: 越南), literally “Viet South”, means “Viet of the South” per Vietnamese word order or “South of the Viet” per Classical Chinese word order.^[15] A variation of the name, Nanyue (or Nam Việt, 南越), was first documented in the 2nd century BC.^[16]
【参考译文】名称“越南”（越南语发音：[viə̂t nām]，汉字：越南），字面意思为“南方的越”，根据越南语序意为“南方的越”，根据古汉语序则为“越之南方”。其变体形式“南越”（汉字：南越，拼音：Nányuè，粤语耶鲁拼音：Nam4 Yuht6）最早记录于公元前2世纪。

The term “Việt” (Yue) (Chinese: 越; pinyin: Yuè; Cantonese Yale: Yuht; Wade–Giles: Yüeh⁴; Vietnamese: Việt) in Early Middle Chinese was first written using the logograph “戉” for an axe (a homophone), in oracle bone and bronze inscriptions of the late Shang dynasty (c. 1200 BC), and later as “越”.^[17] At that time it referred to a people or chieftain to the northwest of the Shang.^[18] In the early 8th century BC, a tribe on the middle Yangtze were called the Yangyue, a term later used for peoples further south.^[18] Between the 7th and 4th centuries BC Yue/Việt referred to the State of Yue in the lower Yangtze basin and its people.^[17][18] From the 3rd century BC the term was used for the non-Chinese populations of southern China and northern Vietnam, with particular ethnic groups called Minyue, Ouyue, Luoyue (Vietnamese: Lạc Việt), etc., collectively called the Baiyue (Bách Việt, Chinese: 百越; pinyin: Bǎiyuè; Cantonese Yale: Baak Yuet; Vietnamese: Bách Việt; “Hundred Yue/Viet”).^[17][18][19] The term Baiyue/Bách Việt first appeared in the book Lüshi Chunqiu compiled around 239 BC.^[20] By the 17th and 18th centuries AD, educated Vietnamese apparently referred to themselves as người Việt (Viet people) or người Nam (southern people).^[21]
【参考译文】“越”（越南语：Việt，汉字：越；汉语拼音：Yuè；粤语耶鲁拼音：Yuht；威妥玛拼音：Yüeh4；越南语：Việt）这个词语，在早期中古汉语中最初是用象形文字“戉”来书写，意指斧头（同音字），出现在约公元前1200年的商朝晚期的甲骨文和青铜器铭文中，后来写作“越”。当时它指的是位于商朝西北方向的一个民族或首领。在公元前8世纪早期，长江中游的一个部落被称为扬越，这一术语后来也被用于更南部的族群。在公元前7至4世纪间，“越”或“Việt”指的是长江下游的越国及其人民。从公元前3世纪开始，该术语被用来指代中国南部和越南北部的非汉族人群体，其中特定的民族被称为闽越、瓯越、骆越（越南语：Lạc Việt）等，总称为百越（越南语：Bách Việt，汉字：百越；汉语拼音：Bǎiyuè；粤语耶鲁拼音：Baak Yuet；越南语：Bách Việt；“百越”）。百越这一术语首次出现于大约在公元前239年编纂的《吕氏春秋》一书中。到了公元17和18世纪，受过教育的越南人似乎称自己为“người Việt”（越人）或“người Nam”（南方人）。

The form Việt Nam (越南) is first recorded in the 16th-century oracular poem Sấm Trạng Trình. The name has also been found on 12 steles carved in the 16th and 17th centuries, including one at Bao Lam Pagoda in Hải Phòng that dates to 1558.^[22] In 1802, Nguyễn Phúc Ánh (who later became Emperor Gia Long) established the Nguyễn dynasty. In the second year of his rule, he asked the Jiaqing Emperor of the Qing dynasty to confer on him the title ‘King of Nam Việt / Nanyue’ (南越 in Chinese character) after seizing power in Annam. The Emperor refused because the name was related to Zhao Tuo‘s Nanyue, which included the regions of Guangxi and Guangdong in southern China. The Qing Emperor, therefore, decided to call the area “Việt Nam” instead,^[i][24] meaning “South of the Viet” per Classical Chinese word order but the Vietnamese understood it as “Viet of the South” per Vietnamese word order.^[15] Between 1804 and 1813, the name Vietnam was used officially by Emperor Gia Long.^[i] It was revived in the early 20th century in Phan Bội Châu‘s History of the Loss of Vietnam, and later by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party (VNQDĐ).^[25] The country was usually called Annam until 1945, when the imperial government in Huế adopted Việt Nam.^[26]
【参考译文】“越南”（越南语：Việt Nam，汉字：越南）这一形式最早记载于16世纪的神谕诗《Sấm Trạng Trình》中。这个名字还出现在16至17世纪雕刻的12块石碑上，其中包括一块1558年在海防保 Lam 寺的石碑上。1802年，阮福映（后来成为嘉隆皇帝）建立了阮朝。在他统治的第二年，他在安南掌权后请求清朝嘉庆皇帝赐予他“南越王”（汉字：南越）的称号。嘉庆皇帝拒绝了，因为这个名字让人联想到赵佗的南越，其中包括中国南部的广西和广东地区。因此，清朝皇帝决定将该地区称为“越南”[i]，按照古汉语词序，意思是“越之南”，而越南人按照他们的语言习惯理解为“南方的越”。[15]从1804年至1813年，越南这个名字被嘉隆皇帝正式使用。[i] 它在20世纪初被范伯洲在其著作《越南丧失史》中重新启用，并随后被越南国民党（VNQDĐ）采用。直到1945年之前，这个国家通常被称为安南，当时顺化的帝国政府采用了“越南”作为国名。[26]

【英文词条原注i】At first, Gia Long requested the name “Nam Việt”, but the Jiaqing Emperor refused.^[16][23]
【参考译文】起初，嘉隆请求使用“南越”这一名称，但是嘉庆皇帝拒绝了。[16][23]

2. 历史 | History

Main article: History of Vietnam / 主条目：越南历史

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Vietnamese history.
【若要查看按时间顺序的指南，请参见“越南历史年表”。】

2.1 史前和早期历史 | Prehistory and early history

Archaeological excavations have revealed the existence of humans in what is now Vietnam as early as the Paleolithic age. Stone artefacts excavated in Gia Lai province have been claimed to date to 780,000 years ago,^[27] based on associated find of tektites, however this claim has been challenged because tektites are often found in archaeological sites of various ages in Vietnam.^[28] Homo erectus fossils dating to around 500,000 BC have been found in caves in Lạng Sơn and Nghệ An provinces in northern Vietnam.^[29] The oldest Homo sapiens fossils from mainland Southeast Asia are of Middle Pleistocene provenance, and include isolated tooth fragments from Tham Om and Hang Hum.^[30][31][32] Teeth attributed to Homo sapiens from the Late Pleistocene have been found at Dong Can,^[33] and from the Early Holocene at Mai Da Dieu,^[34][35] Lang Gao^[36][37] and Lang Cuom.^[38] Areas comprising what is now Vietnam participated in the Maritime Jade Road, as ascertained by archeological research.^{[39][40][41][42]}
【参考译文】考古发掘揭示了早在旧石器时代就有人类生活在现今的越南境内。在嘉莱省发现的石器据称可追溯到78万年前，[27] 这一说法基于与之同时出土的天然玻璃，然而这一主张受到了质疑，因为在越南各地不同年代的考古遗址中经常可以找到天然玻璃。[28] 在越南北部的朗松省和义安省的洞穴中发现了可追溯到大约50万年前的直立人化石。[29] 来自主大陆东南亚最古老的人类化石属于中更新世，包括Tham Om和Hang Hum发现的孤立牙齿碎片。[30][31][32] 晚更新世时期归因于智人的牙齿在东灿被发现，[33] 并且在全新世早期在Mai Da Dieu，[34][35] Lang Gao[36][37] 和Lang Cuom[38] 也有发现。现今越南境内的区域参与了海洋玉石之路，这一点已经通过考古研究得以确认。[39][40][41][42]

By about 1,000 BC, the development of wet-rice cultivation in the Ma River and Red River floodplains led to the flourishing of Đông Sơn culture,^[43][44] notable for its bronze casting used to make elaborate bronze Đông Sơn drums.^[45][46][47] At this point, the early Vietnamese kingdoms of Văn Lang and Âu Lạc appeared, and the culture’s influence spread to other parts of Southeast Asia, including Maritime Southeast Asia, throughout the first millennium BC.^[46][48]
【参考译文】大约在公元前1000年左右，马河和红河冲积平原上水稻种植的发展导致了东山文化的繁荣，[43][44] 这一文化以其用于制作精美的东山铜鼓的青铜铸造技术而著称。[45][46][47] 在这个时候，早期的越南王国文郎和瓯雒出现了，并且这一文化的影响扩展到了东南亚的其他部分，包括海岛东南亚，贯穿整个公元前第一千年。[46][48]

2.2 越南王朝 | Dynastic Vietnam

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Vietnam under Chinese rule.
【如需按时间顺序排列的指南，请参阅“中国统治下的越南时间轴”。】

According to Vietnamese legends, Hồng Bàng dynasty of the Hùng kings first established in 2879 BC is considered the first state in the history of Vietnam (then known as Xích Quỷ and later Văn Lang).^[49][50] In 257 BC, the last Hùng king was defeated by Thục Phán. He consolidated the Lạc Việt and Âu Việt tribes to form the Âu Lạc, proclaiming himself An Dương Vương.^[51] In 179 BC, a Chinese general named Zhao Tuo (“Triệu Đà”) defeated An Dương Vương and consolidated Âu Lạc into Nanyue.^[44] However, Nanyue was itself incorporated into the empire of the Chinese Han dynasty in 111 BC after the Han–Nanyue War.^[24][52] For the next thousand years, what is now northern Vietnam remained mostly under Chinese rule.^[53][54] Early independence movements, such as those of the Trưng Sisters and Lady Triệu,^[55] were temporarily successful,^[56] though the region gained a longer period of independence as Vạn Xuân under the Anterior Lý dynasty between AD 544 and 602.^[57][58][59] By the early 10th century, Northern Vietnam had gained autonomy, but not sovereignty, under the Khúc family.^[60]
【参考译文】根据越南的传说，雄王建立的鸿庞王朝于公元前2879年成立，被认为是越南历史上的第一个国家（当时被称为赤鬼，后来称为文郎）。[49][50] 公元前257年，最后一位雄王被蜀泮击败。蜀泮统一了骆越和瓯越部落，形成瓯雒，并自封为安阳王。[51] 公元前179年，一个名叫赵佗（Triệu Đà）的中国将军击败了安阳王，并将瓯雒合并入南越。[44] 然而，在汉南越战争之后，南越本身于公元前111年被纳入中国的汉朝帝国。[24][52] 在接下来的一千年里，现在的越南北部大部分时间处于中国的统治之下。[53][54] 早期的独立运动，如征氏姐妹和兆夫人的起义，虽然暂时成功，[56] 但在公元544年至602年间，该地区在前黎朝的统治下作为万春获得了较长时间的独立。[57][58][59] 到了10世纪初，北越在曲氏家族的统治下获得了自治权，但并未获得主权。[60]

在前1世纪至10世纪的大部分时间中，越南是在中国古代各政权的直接统治之下。直到968年，丁部领统一境内的割据势力而建国，在李朝建立后受宋朝承认其主权。在脱离中国之后的历史中，越南成为中国朝贡国或藩属国。

In AD 938, the Vietnamese lord Ngô Quyền defeated the forces of the Chinese Southern Han state at Bạch Đằng River and achieved full independence for Vietnam in 939 after a millennium of Chinese domination.^[61][62][63] By the 960s, the dynastic Đại Việt (Great Viet) kingdom was established, Vietnamese society enjoyed a golden era under the Lý and Trần dynasties. During the rule of the Trần Dynasty, Đại Việt repelled three Mongol invasions.^[64][65] Meanwhile, the Mahāyāna branch of Buddhism flourished and became the state religion.^[63][66] Following the 1406–7 Ming–Hồ War, which overthrew the Hồ dynasty, Vietnamese independence was interrupted briefly by the Chinese Ming dynasty, but was restored by Lê Lợi, the founder of the Lê dynasty.^[67] The Vietnamese polity reached their zenith in the Lê dynasty of the 15th century, especially during the reign of emperor Lê Thánh Tông (1460–1497).^[68][69] Between the 11th and 18th centuries, the Vietnamese polity expanded southward in a gradual process known as Nam tiến (“Southward expansion”),^[70] eventually conquering the kingdom of Champa and part of the Khmer Kingdom.^[71][72][73]
【参考译文】公元938年，越南君主吴权在白藤江战役中击败了中国南汉国的军队，并在经过一千年的中国统治后于939年实现了越南的完全独立。[61][62][63] 到了960年代，大越王朝建立，越南社会在李朝和陈朝的统治下进入了一个黄金时期。在陈朝的统治期间，大越击退了三次蒙古入侵。[64][65] 同时，大乘佛教盛行并成为国教。[63][66] 继1406-1407年推翻胡朝的明胡战争之后，越南短暂地被中国明朝中断了独立，但被黎利恢复，他是黎朝的创立者。[67] 越南政权在15世纪黎朝时期达到了顶峰，特别是在黎圣宗（1460-1497年在位）的统治期间。[68][69] 在11世纪到18世纪之间，越南政权向南扩张，这被称为“南进”（Nam tiến），最终征服了占婆王国和柬埔寨王国的部分地区。[70][71][72][73]

蒙古帝国时期，越南陈朝曾击退蒙古的入侵。元朝建立后，越南陈朝的陈兴道又曾两次击退元军的入侵。

明成祖永乐年间，由于越南陈朝君主遭外戚胡季犛篡位，国内混乱，明朝应陈朝的遗臣请求推翻胡氏政权；明军占领越南后，着手进行直接统治，设郡县、置交趾承宣布政使司，在越南推动儒学，尝试重新推动汉化统治。不过在明成祖死后数年，黎利发动蓝山起义将明军驱逐出越南，但承诺维持与明朝的正常关系之后，重新恢复独立。

黎利建立的后黎朝，进一步发动大规模的南进征讨，于1471年攻占占城京城，控制今天版图中的三分之二领地。之后越南的国土又在17世纪的郑阮纷争时往南扩充，于1623年开始逐渐侵占西贡；越南最后在1780年大致占领湄公河三角洲。

From the 16th century onward, civil strife and frequent political infighting engulfed much of Dai Viet. First, the Chinese-supported Mạc dynasty challenged the Lê dynasty’s power.^[74] After the Mạc dynasty was defeated, the Lê dynasty was nominally reinstalled. Actual power, however, was divided between the northern Trịnh lords and the southern Nguyễn lords, who engaged in a civil war for more than four decades before a truce was called in the 1670s.^[75] Vietnam was divided into North (Trịnh) and South (Nguyễn) from 1600 to 1777. During this period, the Nguyễn expanded southern Vietnam into the Mekong Delta, annexing the Central Highlands and the Khmer lands in the Mekong Delta.^[71][73][76] The division of the country ended a century later when the Tây Sơn brothers helped Trịnh to end Nguyễn, they also established new dynasty and ended Trịnh. However, their rule did not last long, and they were defeated by the remnants of the Nguyễn lords, led by Nguyễn Ánh. Nguyễn Ánh unified Vietnam, and established the Nguyễn dynasty, ruling under the name Gia Long.^[76]
【参考译文】从16世纪开始，大越陷入了内乱和频繁的政治斗争。首先，得到中国支持的莫朝挑战了黎朝的权力。[74] 在莫朝被击败后，名义上恢复了黎朝的统治。然而，实际权力却被北方的郑氏和南方的阮氏所分割，他们进行了长达四十余年的内战，直到17世纪70年代达成停战协议。[75] 从1600年到1777年，越南分为北方（郑氏）和南方（阮氏）。在此期间，阮氏将越南南部扩展到了湄公河三角洲，吞并了中部高地和湄公河三角洲的高棉土地。[71][73][76] 一百年后，西山兄弟帮助郑氏结束阮氏统治，并建立了新王朝。然而，他们的统治并没有持续很久，就被由阮映领导的阮氏残余势力击败。阮映统一了越南，并建立了阮朝，以嘉隆为名进行统治。[76]

嘉隆元年（清嘉庆七年，1802年），阮福映建立阮朝。次年表请清朝册封“南越国王”，最终清仁宗嘉庆帝改以“越南国王”之名册封，阮朝正式国号即为“越南”。这也是越南国名的由来，取代之前的名称“大越”，一直沿用至今。

“	阮福映表请以“南越”二字锡封。上谕大学士等曰：“南越”之名，所包甚广。考之前史，今广东、广西地亦在其内。阮福映即有安南，亦不过交趾故地，何得遽称“南越”？该国先有越裳旧地，后有安南全壤。天朝褒赐国号，著用“越南”二字，以“越”字冠其上，仍其先世疆域；以‘南’字列于下，表其新赐藩封；且在百越之南，著于《时宪书》内，将“安南”改为“越南”。	”
——《嘉庆重修一统志》卷五五三

2.3 法属印度支那 | French Indochina

Main articles: Cochinchina campaign, Sino-French War, Tonkin campaign, and French Indochina
【主条目：交趾支那战役、中法战争、东京战役和法属印度支那】

In the 1500s, the Portuguese explored the Vietnamese coast and reportedly erected a stele on the Chàm Islands to mark their presence.^[77] By 1533, they began landing in the Vietnamese delta but were forced to leave because of local turmoil and fighting. They also had less interest in the territory than they did in China and Japan.^[77] After they had settled in Macau and Nagasaki to begin the profitable Macau–Japan trade route, the Portuguese began to involve themselves in trade with Hội An.^[77] Portuguese traders and Jesuit missionaries under the Padroado system were active in both Vietnamese realms of Đàng Trong (Cochinchina or Quinan) and Đàng Ngoài (Tonkin) in the 17th century.^[78]
【参考译文】在16世纪，葡萄牙人探索了越南沿海，并据说在占岛树立了一块石碑以标记他们的到来。[77] 到了1533年，他们开始登陆越南三角洲地区，但由于当地动荡和冲突被迫离开。他们对这片领土的兴趣不如对中国和日本那样浓厚。[77] 在他们在澳门和长崎定居并开始了有利可图的澳门—日本贸易路线之后，葡萄牙人开始参与与会安的贸易活动。[77] 在17世纪，葡萄牙商人和在帕德劳系统下的耶稣会传教士在越南的两个领域——承天府（交趾支那或钦南）和升龙府（东京）都非常活跃。[78]

The Dutch also tried to establish contact with Quinan in 1601 but failed to sustain a presence there after several violent encounters with the locals. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) only managed to establish official relations with Tonkin in the spring of 1637 after leaving Dejima in Japan to establish trade for silk.^[79] Meanwhile, in 1613, the first English attempt to establish contact with Hội An failed following a violent incident involving the East India Company. By 1672 the English did establish relations with Tonkin and were allowed to reside in Phố Hiến.^[80]
【参考译文】荷兰人也试图在1601年与钦南建立联系，但在几次与当地人发生暴力冲突后未能在那里维持存在。荷兰东印度公司（VOC）仅在1637年春季离开日本的出岛建立丝绸贸易后，才成功与东京建立了官方关系。[79] 另一方面，1613年英国首次尝试与会安建立联系由于涉及东印度公司的暴力事件而失败。到1672年，英国确实与东京建立了关系，并被允许居住在普显。[80]

Between 1615 and 1753, French traders also engaged in trade in Vietnam.^[81][82] The first French missionaries arrived in 1658, under the Portuguese Padroado. From its foundation, the Paris Foreign Missions Society under Propaganda Fide actively sent missionaries to Vietnam, entering Cochinchina first in 1664 and Tonkin first in 1666.^[83] Spanish Dominicans joined the Tonkin mission in 1676, and Franciscans were in Cochinchina from 1719 to 1834. The Vietnamese authorities began^[when?] to feel threatened by continuous Christianisation activities.^[84] After several Catholic missionaries were detained, the French Navy intervened in 1843 to free them, as the kingdom was perceived as xenophobic.^[85] In a series of conquests from 1859 to 1885, France eroded Vietnam’s sovereignty.^[86] At the siege of Tourane in 1858, France was aided by Spain (with Filipino, Latin American, and Spanish troops from the Philippines)^[87] and perhaps some Tonkinese Catholics.^[88] After the 1862 Treaty, and especially after France completely conquered Lower Cochinchina in 1867, the Văn Thân movement of scholar-gentry class arose and committed violence against Catholics across central and northern Vietnam.^[89]
【参考译文】在1615年至1753年间，法国商人也在越南从事贸易活动。[81][82] 第一批法国传教士于1658年在葡萄牙帕德劳系统的支持下到达。从其创立之初起，巴黎外方传教会就在宗座传信部的支持下积极派遣传教士前往越南，最早于1664年进入交趾支那，1666年进入东京。[83] 1676年，西班牙多米尼加会士加入了东京的传教工作，而方济各会在1719年至1834年间在交趾支那活动。越南当局在某个时候开始感到受到持续基督教化活动的威胁。[84] 在几名天主教传教士被拘留后，法国海军于1843年介入以解救他们，因为该王国被认为具有排外情绪。[85] 从1859年至1885年的一系列征服中，法国逐步侵蚀了越南的主权。[86] 在1858年的Tourane围城战中，法国得到了西班牙的帮助（包括来自菲律宾的西班牙、拉丁美洲和菲律宾部队）[87] 以及可能的一些东京天主教徒。[88] 1862年条约签订后，尤其是在法国于1867年完全征服下交趾支那之后，士绅阶级的文身运动兴起，并在整个中北部越南针对天主教徒实施暴力行为。[89]

Between 1862 and 1867, the southern third of the country became the French colony of Cochinchina.^[90] By 1884, the entire country was under French rule, with the central and northern parts of Vietnam separated into the two protectorates of Annam and Tonkin. The three entities were formally integrated into the union of French Indochina in 1887.^[91][92] The French administration imposed significant political and cultural changes on Vietnamese society.^[93] A Western-style system of modern education introduced new humanist values.^[94] Most French settlers in Indochina were concentrated in Cochinchina, particularly in Saigon, and in Hanoi, the colony’s capital.^[95]
【参考译文】在1862年至1867年间，越南的南部三分之一地区成为了法国殖民地交趾支那。[90] 到了1884年，整个国家都处于法国的统治之下，其中越南的中部和北部被划分为安南和东京两个保护国。这三个实体在1887年正式整合成为法属印度支那联盟的一部分。[91][92] 法国管理机构对越南社会施加了重大的政治和文化变革。[93] 西方式的现代教育体系引入了新的人文价值观。[94] 大多数在印度支那的法国定居者集中在交趾支那，特别是西贡，以及河内——该殖民地的首都。[95]

During the colonial period, guerrillas of the royalist Cần Vương movement rebelled against French rule and massacred around a third of Vietnam’s Christian population.^[96][97] After a decade of resistance, they were defeated in the 1890s by the Catholics in reprisal for their earlier massacres.^[98][99] Another large-scale rebellion, the Thái Nguyên uprising, was also suppressed heavily.^[100] The French developed a plantation economy to promote export of tobacco, indigo, tea and coffee.^[101] However, they largely ignored the increasing demands for civil rights and self-government. An increasing dissatisfaction, even led to half-hearted, badly co-ordinated, and still worsely executed plots to oust the French, like the infamous Hanoi Poison Plot of 1908.
【参考译文】在殖民时期，保皇派的勤王运动游击队反抗法国统治，并屠杀了大约三分之一的越南基督徒人口。[96][97] 经过十年的抵抗，他们在19世纪90年代被天主教徒镇压，作为对他们早前屠杀的报复。[98][99] 另一次大规模的叛乱，太原起义，也被严厉镇压。[100] 法国发展了种植园经济以促进烟草、靛蓝、茶和咖啡的出口。[101] 然而，他们基本上忽视了日益增长的民权和自治要求。这种不满情绪的增加甚至导致了一些半心半意、协调不力且执行糟糕的阴谋企图推翻法国统治，比如臭名昭著的1908年河内投毒案。

A nationalist political movement soon emerged, with leaders like Phan Bội Châu, Phan Châu Trinh, Phan Đình Phùng, Emperor Hàm Nghi, and Hồ Chí Minh fighting or calling for independence.^[102] This resulted in the 1930 Yên Bái mutiny by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party (VNQDĐ), which the French quashed. The mutiny split the independence movement, as many leading members converted to communism.^{[103][104][105]}
【参考译文】民族主义政治运动很快出现，像潘佩珠、潘周桢、潘丁冯、咸宜帝和胡志明这样的领导人或是呼吁独立，或是为此而斗争。[102] 这导致了1930年由越南国民党（VNQDĐ）发动的义安兵变，该兵变被法国镇压。这次兵变分裂了独立运动，因为许多主要成员转向了共产主义。[103][104][105]

The French maintained full control of their colonies until World War II, when the war in the Pacific led to the Japanese invasion of French Indochina in 1940. Afterwards, the Japanese Empire was allowed to station its troops in Vietnam while the pro-Vichy French colonial administration continued.^[106][107] Japan exploited Vietnam’s natural resources to support its military campaigns, culminating in a full-scale takeover of the country in March 1945. This led to the Vietnamese Famine of 1945 which killed up to two million people.^[108][109]
【参考译文】法国一直保持着对其殖民地的全面控制，直到第二次世界大战期间，太平洋战争导致了1940年日本入侵法属印度支那。此后，日本帝国被允许在越南驻军，而亲维希的法国殖民政府继续存在。[106][107] 日本利用越南的自然资源来支持其军事行动，最终在1945年3月全面占领了该国。这导致了1945年的越南大饥荒，造成多达两百万人死亡。[108][109]

第二次世界大战时，纳粹德国占领法国、维希法国建立接管所有法国海外殖民地，但管治松散，包括法印支那。1940年9月大日本帝国趁机出兵占领法属印度支那北部，日军与维希法国殖民军共治中南半岛。1941年，胡志明等越南革命家创办“越南独立同盟会”（简称越盟），确定反对法国和日本殖民统治，通过以武装斗争来建立新民主主义的越南民主共和国的主张，1944年末盟军从德国手上解放法国，维希政权彻底灭亡导致了于1945年3月，因亲德、日的法国人已没利用价值，日本驻军为防盟军占越南，发动了三九政变全面推翻法国的统治，立傀儡保大帝为越南帝国的君主。1945年8月，日本无条件投降，越南顿时统治真空。越盟随即举行起义，夺取越南政权，嗣后日本傀儡政权越南帝国的阮朝末代君主保大帝下诏退位；9月2日胡志明于河内巴亭广场发表《越南独立宣言》，宣告越南民主共和国成立。9月20日，当时越南内部局势混乱，中国滇越边区总司令卢汉率20万大军进入河内，接受战败的日军投降。中国国民党军队进驻越南北部，而英国军队则进入越南南部。1946年，法国又重返出兵越南，法军在越南北部沿海登陆，于是第一次印度支那战争爆发，法国重新控制了越南各大城市。法国还逼迫中国的蒋介石以法国退还在中华民国境内的租界等财产作为交换条件，使得中国国民党政府从越南撤兵。1949年法国主导成立由保大帝出山领导的越南国，越盟退却到丛林山岳地区从事游击作战。1950年1月，击败中华民国政府和中国国民党的中华人民共和国成为第一个承认越南民主共和国并与之建交的国家，尔后苏联以及东欧国家与越南民主共和国建立外交关系。1950年起，越盟得到苏联的军事、经济援助，对法作战转入攻势。

2.4 第一次印度支那战争 | First Indochina War

Main articles: First Indochina War, Empire of Vietnam, Democratic Republic of Vietnam, State of Vietnam, and Operation Passage to Freedom
【主要条目：第一次印度支那战争、越南帝国、越南民主共和国、越南国、自由通道行动】

In 1941, the Việt Minh, a nationalist liberation movement based on a communist ideology, emerged under the Vietnamese revolutionary leader Hồ Chí Minh. The Việt Minh sought independence for Vietnam from France and the end of the Japanese occupation.^[110][111] After the military defeat of Japan in World War II and the fall of its puppet government Empire of Vietnam in August 1945, Saigon’s administrative services collapsed and chaos, riots, and murder were widespread.^[112] The Việt Minh occupied Hanoi and proclaimed a provisional government, which asserted national independence on 2 September.^[111]
【参考译文】1941年，基于共产主义意识形态的民族解放运动——越南独立同盟（Việt Minh），在越南革命领袖胡志明的领导下成立。越南独立同盟寻求从法国独立以及结束日本的占领。[110][111] 在日本于第二次世界大战中军事战败及1945年8月其傀儡政权越南帝国倒台之后，西贡的行政服务崩溃，混乱、暴动和谋杀事件频发。[112] 越南独立同盟占领了河内，并于9月2日宣布了临时政府，声明国家独立。[111]

In July 1945, the Allies had decided to divide Indochina at the 16th parallel to allow Chiang Kai-shek of the Republic of China to receive the Japanese surrender in the north while Britain’s Lord Louis Mountbatten received their surrender in the south. The Allies agreed that Indochina still belonged to France.^[113][114]
【参考译文】1945年7月，盟军决定在第16平行线上划分印度支那，允许中华民国的蒋介石在北方接受日军投降，而英国的路易斯·蒙巴顿勋爵则在南方接受日军投降。盟军同意印度支那仍属于法国。[113][114]

But as the French were weakened by the German occupation, British-Indian forces and the remaining Japanese Southern Expeditionary Army Group were used to maintain order and help France reestablish control through the 1945–1946 War in Vietnam.^[115] Hồ initially chose to take a moderate stance to avoid military conflict with France, asking the French to withdraw their colonial administrators and for French professors and engineers to help build a modern independent Vietnam.^[111] But the Provisional Government of the French Republic did not act on these requests, including the idea of independence, and dispatched the French Far East Expeditionary Corps to restore colonial rule. This resulted in the Việt Minh launching a guerrilla campaign against the French in late 1946.^{[110][111][116]} The resulting First Indochina War lasted until July 1954. The defeat of French colonialists and Vietnamese loyalists in the 1954 battle of Điện Biên Phủ allowed Hồ to negotiate a ceasefire from a favourable position at the subsequent Geneva Conference.^[111][117]
【参考译文】但是随着法国因德国占领而削弱，英印部队和剩余的日本南方远征军被用来维持秩序，并通过1945-1946年的越南战争帮助法国重新确立控制。[115] 胡志明最初选择采取温和立场以避免与法国发生军事冲突，要求法国撤回其殖民管理人员，并请求法国教授和工程师帮助建设一个现代化独立的越南。[111] 但是法兰西共和国临时政府没有回应这些请求，包括独立的想法，并派遣了法国外方远征军来恢复殖民统治。这导致越南独立同盟在1946年底对法国发动了游击战。[110][111][116] 所引发的第一次印度支那战争一直持续到1954年7月。1954年奠边府战役中法国殖民者和越南效忠者的失败使胡志明能够在随后的日內瓦会议上从有利位置谈判停火。[111][117]

The colonial administration was thereby ended and French Indochina was dissolved under the Geneva Accords of 21 July 1954 into three countries—Vietnam, and the kingdoms of Cambodia and Laos. Vietnam was further divided into North and South administrative regions at the Demilitarised Zone, roughly along the 17th parallel north (pending elections scheduled for July 1956^[j]). A 300-day period of free movement was permitted, during which almost a million northerners, mainly Catholics, moved south, fearing persecution by the communists. This migration was in large part aided by the United States military through Operation Passage to Freedom.^[122][123] The partition of Vietnam by the Geneva Accords was not intended to be permanent, and stipulated that Vietnam would be reunited after the elections.^[124] But in 1955, the southern State of Vietnam’s prime minister, Ngô Đình Diệm, toppled Bảo Đại in a fraudulent referendum organised by his brother Ngô Đình Nhu, and proclaimed himself president of the Republic of Vietnam.^[124] This effectively replaced the internationally recognised State of Vietnam by the Republic of Vietnam in the south—supported by the United States, France, Laos, Republic of China and Thailand—and Hồ’s Democratic Republic of Vietnam in the north, supported by the Soviet Union, Sweden,^[125] Khmer Rouge, and the People’s Republic of China.^[124]
【参考译文】殖民统治因此结束，根据1954年7月21日的日內瓦协议，法属印度支那解散为三个国家——越南，以及柬埔寨和老挝王国。越南进一步在非军事区（大致沿北纬17度线）被划分为南北两个行政区（待定于1956年7月举行的选举[j]）。允许300天的自由迁移期，在此期间，大约有一百万北方人，主要是天主教徒，南迁，担心受到共产党的迫害。这次迁移在很大程度上得到了美国军队通过自由通道行动(Operation Passage to Freedom)的帮助。[122][123] 根据日內瓦协议，越南的分裂并不打算永久存在，并规定越南将在选举后重新统一。[124] 但是在1955年，南越国总理吴廷琰在由他的弟弟吴廷儒组织的一场欺诈性全民投票中推翻了保大，并自任越南共和国总统。[124] 这实际上是由美国、法国、老挝、中华民国和泰国支持的越南共和国取代了国际公认的南越国，而由苏联、瑞典、[125] 极端红色高棉和中华人民共和国支持的北越的越南民主共和国依然存在。[124]

2.5 越南战争 | Vietnam War

Main articles: Vietnam War and Role of the United States in the Vietnam War
【主要条目：越南战争、美国在越南战争中的角色】

图片题注：Three US Fairchild UC-123B aircraft spraying Agent Orange during the Operation Ranch Hand as part of a herbicidal warfare operation depriving the food and vegetation cover of the Việt Cộng, c. 1962–1971

参考译文：三架美国费尔柴德UC-123B飞机在“牧场手”行动（Operation Ranch Hand）中喷洒橙剂，作为化学战的一部分，目的是剥夺越共的食物和植被掩护，大约在1962年至1971年期间。

图片来源：USAF

From 1953 to 1956, the North Vietnamese government instituted agrarian reforms including “rent reduction” and “land reform“, which resulted in significant political repression.^[126] This included 13,500 to as many as 100,000 executions.^[127][128] In the South, Diệm countered North Vietnamese subversion (including the assassination of over 450 South Vietnamese officials in 1956) by detaining tens of thousands of suspected communists in “political reeducation centres”.^[129][130] This program incarcerated many non-communists, but was successful at curtailing communist activity in the country, if only for a time.^[131] The North Vietnamese government claimed that 2,148 people were killed in the process by November 1957.^[132] The pro-Hanoi Việt Cộng began a guerrilla campaign in South Vietnam in the late 1950s to overthrow Diệm’s government.^[133] From 1960, the Soviet Union and North Vietnam signed treaties providing for further Soviet military support.^{[134][135][136]}
【参考译文】从1953年到1956年，北越政府实施了包括“减租”和“土地改革”在内的农业改革，这导致了严重的政治压迫。[126] 这其中包括了13,500到多达100,000人的处决。[127][128] 在南方，吴廷琰为了对抗北越的颠覆活动（包括1956年超过450名南越官员被刺杀）将数万名疑似共产党人拘留在“政治再教育中心”。[129][130] 这一项目囚禁了许多非共产党人士，但在一段时间内成功地遏制了共产主义在该国的活动。[131] 北越政府声称，截至1957年11月，已有2,148人在这一过程中被杀害。[132] 支持河内的越共在20世纪50年代后期开始在南越发动游击战，意图推翻吴廷琰的政权。[133] 从1960年起，苏联和北越签署了提供进一步苏联军事支持的条约。[134][135][136]

In 1963, Buddhist discontent with Diệm’s Catholic regime erupted into mass demonstrations, leading to a violent government crackdown.^[137] This led to the collapse of Diệm’s relationship with the United States, and ultimately to a 1963 coup in which he and Nhu were assassinated.^[138] The Diệm era was followed by more than a dozen successive military governments, before the pairing of Air Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ and General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu took control in mid-1965.^[139] Thiệu gradually outmaneuvered Kỳ and cemented his grip on power in fraudulent elections in 1967 and 1971.^[140] During this political instability, the communists began to gain ground. To support South Vietnam’s struggle against the communist insurgency, the United States used the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin incident as a pretext for increasing its contribution of military advisers.^[141] US forces became involved in ground combat operations by 1965, and at their peak several years later, numbered more than 500,000.^[142][143] The US also engaged in sustained aerial bombing. Meanwhile, China and the Soviet Union provided North Vietnam with significant material aid and 15,000 combat advisers.^{[134][135][144]} Communist forces supplying the Việt Cộng carried supplies along the Hồ Chí Minh trail, which passed through Laos.^[145]
【参考译文】1963 年，佛教徒对吴廷琰的天主教政权的不满演变成大规模示威活动，导致政府采取暴力镇压。[137] 这导致吴廷琰与美国关系破裂，并最终在 1963 年发动政变，他和阮文绍在其中被暗杀。[138] 吴廷琰时代之后，越南又连续执政了十多个军政府，直到 1965 年中期，空军元帅阮高镛和将军阮文绍掌权。[139] 阮文绍逐渐战胜高镛，并在 1967 年和 1971 年的选举舞弊中巩固了对权力的控制。[140] 在这种政治不稳定时期，共产党开始取得进展。为了支持南越对抗共产主义叛乱，美国以 1964 年北部湾事件为借口，增加了军事顾问的派遣。[141] 1965 年，美国军队开始参与地面作战行动，几年后，美军人数达到顶峰，超过 50 万人。[142][143] 美国还进行了持续的空中轰炸。与此同时，中国和苏联向北越提供了大量物质援助和 15,000 名作战顾问。[134][135][144] 为越共提供补给的共产主义部队沿着穿过老挝的胡志明小道运送补给。[145]

The communists attacked South Vietnamese targets during the 1968 Tết Offensive. The campaign failed militarily, but shocked the American establishment and turned US public opinion against the war.^[146] During the offensive, communist troops massacred over 3,000 civilians at Huế.^[147][148] Facing an increasing casualty count, rising domestic opposition to the war, and growing international condemnation, the US began withdrawing from ground combat roles in the early 1970s. This also entailed an unsuccessful effort to strengthen and stabilise South Vietnam.^[149] Following the Paris Peace Accords of 27 January 1973, all American combat troops were withdrawn by 29 March 1973.^[150] In December 1974, North Vietnam captured the province of Phước Long and started a full-scale offensive, culminating in the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975.^[151] South Vietnam was ruled by a provisional government for almost eight years while under North Vietnamese military occupation.^[152]
【参考译文】1968 年春节攻势期间，共产党袭击了南越目标。虽然这场战役在军事上失败了，但震惊了美国建制派，并使美国公众舆论转向反对战争。[146] 在攻势期间，共产党军队在顺化屠杀了 3,000 多名平民。[147][148] 面对不断增加的伤亡人数、国内对战争的反对声浪以及日益高涨的国际谴责，美国在 20 世纪 70 年代初开始撤出地面作战角色。这也导致美国为加强和稳定南越所做的努力未能成功。[149] 1973 年 1 月 27 日签署巴黎​​和平协定后，所有美国作战部队于 1973 年 3 月 29 日撤出。[150] 1974 年 12 月，北越占领福隆省并发动全面攻势，最终于 1975 年 4 月 30 日攻占西贡。[151] 在北越军事占领期间，南越由临时政府统治了近八年。[152]

2.6 再次统一和改革 | Reunification and reforms

Further information: Re-education camp (Vietnam), Vietnamese boat people, and Đổi Mới
【更多信息：再教育营（越南）、越南船民、革新政策（Đổi Mới）】

On 2 July 1976, North and South Vietnam were merged to form the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.^[153] The war had devastated Vietnam and killed 966,000 to 3.8 million people.^{[154][155][156]} A 1974 US Senate subcommittee estimated nearly 1.4 million Vietnamese civilians were killed or wounded between 1965 and 1974—including 415,000 killed.^[157][158] In its aftermath, under Lê Duẩn‘s administration, there were no mass executions of South Vietnamese who had collaborated with the US or the defunct South Vietnamese government, confounding Western fears,^[159] but up to 300,000 South Vietnamese were sent to reeducation camps, where many endured torture, starvation, and disease while being forced to perform hard labour.^[160] The government embarked on a mass campaign of collectivisation of farms and factories.^[161] Many fled the country following the conclusion of the war.^[162] In 1978, in response to the Khmer Rouge government of Cambodia ordering massacres of Vietnamese residents in the border villages in the districts of An Giang and Kiên Giang,^[163] the Vietnamese military invaded Cambodia and removed them from power after occupying Phnom Penh.^[164] The intervention was a success, resulting in the establishment of a new, pro-Vietnam socialist government, the People’s Republic of Kampuchea, which ruled until 1989.^[165] However, this worsened relations with China, which had supported the Khmer Rouge. China later launched a brief incursion into northern Vietnam in 1979, causing Vietnam to rely even more heavily on Soviet economic and military aid, while mistrust of the Chinese government escalated.^[166]
【参考译文】1976 年 7 月 2 日，南北越合并，成立越南社会主义共和国。[153] 战争给越南带来了巨大的破坏，造成 96.6 万至 380 万人死亡。[154][155][156] 1974 年，美国参议院小组委员会估计，1965 年至 1974 年间，越南平民死伤近 140 万，其中 41.5 万人被杀害。[157][158] 战后，在黎笋的领导下，并没有大规模处决与美国或已解散的南越政府合作的南越人，这让西方担心的更加严重[159]。但多达 30 万南越人被送往再教育营，许多人在那里忍受着酷刑、饥饿和疾病，还被迫从事苦役。[160]政府开展了大规模的农场和工厂集体化运动。[161] 战争结束后，许多人逃离该国。[162] 1978 年，为了回应柬埔寨红色高棉政府下令屠杀安江和坚江地区边境村庄的越南居民，[163] 越南军队入侵柬埔寨，占领金边后推翻了他们的政权。[164] 干预取得了成功，建立了一个新的亲越南的社会主义政府——柬埔寨人民共和国，统治到 1989 年。[165] 然而，这恶化了与支持红色高棉的中国的关系。中国后来于 1979 年对越南北部发动了短暂的入侵，导致越南更加依赖苏联的经济和军事援助，而对中国政府的不信任也不断加剧。[166]

At the Sixth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) in December 1986, reformist politicians replaced the “old guard” government with new leadership.^[167][168] The reformers were led by 71-year-old Nguyễn Văn Linh, who became the party’s new general secretary.^[167] He and the reformers implemented a series of free-market reforms known as Đổi Mới (“Renovation”) that carefully managed the transition from a planned economy to a “socialist-oriented market economy“.^[169][170] Although the authority of the state remained unchallenged under Đổi Mới, the government encouraged private ownership of farms and factories, economic deregulation, and foreign investment, while maintaining control over strategic industries.^[170][171] Subsequently, Vietnam’s economy achieved strong growth in agricultural and industrial production, construction, exports, and foreign investment, although these reforms also resulted in a rise in income inequality and gender disparities.^{[172][173][174]}
【参考译文】1986 年 12 月，在越南共产党第六次全国代表大会上，改革派政治家用新领导层取代了“老派”政府。[167][168] 改革派以 71 岁的阮文灵为首，他成为党的新任总书记。[167] 他和改革派实施了一系列自由市场改革，被称为“革新”，精心管理从计划经济向“社会主义导向的市场经济”的过渡。[169][170] 虽然在革新时期，国家权威未受挑战，但政府鼓励农场和工厂私有制、经济放松管制和外国投资，同时保持对战略产业的控制。[170][171]随后，越南经济在农业和工业生产、建筑业、出口和外国投资方面实现了强劲增长，尽管这些改革也导致收入不平等和性别差距扩大。[172][173][174]

In 2021, General Secretary of the Communist Party, Nguyen Phu Trong, was re-elected for his third term in office, meaning he is Vietnam’s most powerful leader in decades.^[175]
【参考译文】2021年，越南共产党总书记阮富仲再次当选第三任期，这意味着他成为越南几十年来最有权势的领导人。[175]

3. 地理 | Geography

Main article: Geography of Vietnam / 主条目：越南地理

越南位于亚洲大陆东南方的中南半岛东部沿海，由北至南比邻北部湾、南海和暹罗湾等海域，位于北纬8度30分至23度22分、东经102度10分至109度分之间，属热带国家^[30]:2，国土面积为331,210平方公里，是世界上第67大面积的国家^[31]。越南北部与中华人民共和国接壤，边界长达1,347公里，西领老挝（边界1,650公里）与柬埔寨（边界930公里），海岸线长达3,260公里^[32]:372。越南国土狭长，最北的河江省同文县弄顾村至最南的金瓯省金瓯角历头村长达1,640公里，而中部的广平省滨海城市洞海到与老挝边境边境一带的戈龙村则为全国东西最窄者，仅48公里，最宽的则是北部广宁省芒街到莱州省阿巴寨，达600公里^[30]:2。越南的地形常被形容为“一条扁担挑着两个谷筐”，扁担指西北—东南向的安南山脉，两个谷筐则是指南北两个主要生产稻谷（粮仓）的平原^[33]:6。越南全国总面积有3/4为丘陵、高原和山地^[34]:4、仅1/4是平原^[30]:3，并有着极为丰沛的水资源，全国大小河流共2,860条，总长达4.1万公里，沿海岸线计算，每20公里就有一条河入海，其南方西部地区河流水道密集，有着多处湿地和沼泽^[33]:4。

Tropical forests cover around 42%.^[181] The Red River Delta in the north, a flat, roughly triangular region covering 15,000 km² (5,792 sq mi),^[182] is smaller but more intensely developed and more densely populated than the Mekong River Delta in the south. Once an inlet of the Gulf of Tonkin, it has been filled in over the millennia by riverine alluvial deposits.^[183][184] The delta, covering about 40,000 km² (15,444 sq mi), is a low-level plain no more than 3 metres (9.8 ft) above sea level at any point. It is criss-crossed by a maze of rivers and canals, which carry so much sediment that the delta advances 60 to 80 metres (196.9 to 262.5 ft) into the sea every year.^[185][186] The exclusive economic zone of Vietnam covers 417,663 km² (161,261 sq mi) in the South China Sea.^[187]
【参考译文】热带森林覆盖了大约42%的面积。[181] 北部的红河三角洲是一个平坦的、大约呈三角形的地区，覆盖面积约15,000平方公里（5,792平方英里），[182] 尽管它比南部的湄公河三角洲小，但却开发更为密集且人口密度更高。曾经是东京湾的一个海湾，经过数千年河流沉积物的填充，它变成了陆地。[183][184] 该三角洲覆盖约40,000平方公里（15,444平方英里），是一个海拔高度不超过3米（9.8英尺）的低平原。它被纵横交错的河流和运河网络所覆盖，这些水道携带如此多的沉积物，以至于三角洲每年向海洋推进60到80米（196.9至262.5英尺）。[185][186] 越南在中国南海的专属经济区覆盖面积为417,663平方公里（161,261平方英里）。[187]

按照地貌，越南地形大致可分作北中南三部分，其北部多山，高度由西向东递减，西部地形相当险要，高度约在1,500至2,500米之间，是中南半岛地势最高的地区^[30]:3，有着“中南半岛的屋脊”之称，其中便有越南的最高峰——番西邦峰（海拔3,143米，也是半岛的最高峰^[33]:3）。中越交界地一带的山体主要由石灰岩所构成，称之为“喀斯特地形”，由于其容易被水溶解的特性，形成此地石林和溶洞的奇景。北部平原由长约1,140公里的红河（因冲刷带来大量的红土而得名）冲刷而成，该河含沙量极高（每年约2亿吨^[34]:8），每年都使出海口陆地向外推进100米左右，形成面积约15,000至20,000平方公里的“红河三角洲”^{[33]:6[30]:10}。越南中部有着绵延1,200多公里的安南山脉，是越南与老挝和柬埔寨的自然疆界^[34]:5，原为高原，后被冲刷成多条深谷，并构成越南地形的主干，其东面濒临近海，倾斜陡急，西面则倾斜平缓^[33]:3，还有着越南最大的高原——“西原”，面积达3.7万平方公里，此地森林密布、草原辽阔，适宜种植咖啡、茶叶、胡椒、橡胶等经济作物^[34]:7-8，还有重要的同奈河水系，长300公里^[34]:10，是越南中部的主要河流之一。越南南部地区地势较为平稳，大多不超过海拔5米，由长约4,668公里的湄公河冲刷而成，该河是中南半岛最长的河流^[32]:372，因出海口分为九条支流入海，又称为“九龙江”。虽然湄公河在越南境内的流域仅占其总长度的1/20（220公里），却是最肥沃的地区，常常自中上游冲刷腐植质到越南境内，形成面积约40,000平方公里的“湄公河三角洲”，这是越南面积最大、土地最肥沃的平原，约占全国粮食总产量40％^[34]:7。湄公河也同样不断扩张著出海口的土地面积，每年约延伸60至80米^[33]:4-5。

Southern Vietnam is divided into coastal lowlands, the mountains of the Annamite Range, and extensive forests. Comprising five relatively flat plateaus of basalt soil, the highlands account for 16% of the country’s arable land and 22% of its total forested land.^[188] The soil in much of the southern part of Vietnam is relatively low in nutrients as a result of intense cultivation.^[189] Several minor earthquakes have been recorded.^[190][191] The northern part of the country consists mostly of highlands and the Red River Delta. Fansipan (also known as Phan Xi Păng), which is located in Lào Cai Province, is the highest mountain in Vietnam, standing 3,143 m (10,312 ft) high.^[192] From north to south Vietnam, the country also has numerous islands; Phú Quốc is the largest.^[193] The Hang Sơn Đoòng Cave is considered the largest known cave passage in the world since its discovery in 2009. The Ba Bể Lake and Mekong River are the largest lake and longest river in the country.^{[194][195][196]}
【参考译文】越南南部被划分为沿海低地、安南山脉和广阔的森林。该地区包含五个相对平坦的玄武岩土壤高原，这些高地区域占全国可耕地的16%和森林总面积的22%。[188] 由于强烈的耕作，越南南部大部分地区的土壤营养成分相对较低。[189] 记录中有几次轻微地震发生。[190][191] 国家的北部主要由高地和红河三角洲组成。番西邦（又名Phan Xi Păng），位于老街省，是越南最高的山峰，海拔3,143米（10,312英尺）。[192] 从北到南，越南还有许多岛屿；富国岛是最大的一个。[193] Hang Sơn Đoòng洞穴自2009年被发现以来被认为是世界上已知的最大洞穴通道。巴拜湖和湄公河是该国最大湖泊和最长河流。[194][195][196]

越南共有大小岛屿2700座，总面积达17,000平方公里，其中有84座岛面积在一平方公里以上。越南岛屿多集中于东北部的广宁省—海防市以东海域和最南端的建江省—明海以南海域，前者约占总数量的83％^[34]:11。越南的主要岛屿有白龙尾岛、姑苏岛、暹罗湾的土珠群岛、富国岛等等，另外也和中国、菲律宾、印尼和马来西亚等国家有着南沙群岛所有权的纷争^[35]:13。

3.1 气候 | Climate

Main article: Climate of Vietnam【主条目：越南的气候】

Due to differences in latitude and the marked variety in topographical relief, Vietnam’s climate tends to vary considerably for each region.^[197] During the winter or dry season, extending roughly from November to April, the monsoon winds usually blow from the northeast along the Chinese coast and across the Gulf of Tonkin, picking up considerable moisture.^[198] The average annual temperature is generally higher in the plains than in the mountains, especially in southern Vietnam compared to the north. Temperatures vary less in the southern plains around Ho Chi Minh City and the Mekong Delta, ranging from between 21 and 35 °C (70 and 95 °F) over the year.^[199] In Hanoi and the surrounding areas of the Red River Delta, the temperatures are much lower between 15 and 33 °C (59 and 91 °F).^[199] Seasonal variations in the mountains, plateaus, and the northernmost areas are much more dramatic, with temperatures varying from 3 °C (37 °F) in December and January to 37 °C (99 °F) in July and August.^[200] During winter, snow occasionally falls over the highest peaks of the far northern mountains near the Chinese border.^[201] Vietnam receives high rates of precipitation in the form of rainfall with an average amount from 1,500 to 2,000 mm (60 to 80 in) during the monsoon seasons; this often causes flooding, especially in the cities with poor drainage systems.^[202] The country is also affected by tropical depressions, tropical storms and typhoons.^[202] Vietnam is one of the most vulnerable countries to climate change, with 55% of its population living in low-elevation coastal areas.^[203][204]
【参考译文】由于纬度差异和地形起伏显著，越南的气候在不同地区有相当大的变化。[197] 在冬季或旱季，大约从11月到4月，季风通常沿着中国海岸吹来，并穿越东京湾，带来大量湿气。[198] 平均年温度通常在平原地区高于山区，尤其是在南部越南与北部相比。胡志明市周边和湄公河三角洲的南部平原地区的气温全年变化较小，介于21至35摄氏度（70至95华氏度）之间。[199] 在河内及其红河三角洲周边地区，气温则明显较低，介于15至33摄氏度（59至91华氏度）之间。[199] 山区、高原和最北部地区的季节性温差更为显著，气温从12月和1月的3摄氏度（37华氏度）到7月和8月的37摄氏度（99华氏度）。[200] 冬季，雪偶尔会落在靠近中国边境的最北部高山顶上。[201] 越南降雨量充沛，季风季节平均降水量在1,500至2,000毫米（60至80英寸）之间，这往往会引发洪水，特别是在排水系统不佳的城市。[202] 该国还会受到热带低压、热带风暴和台风的影响。[202] 越南是受气候变化影响最严重的国家之一，其55%的人口居住在低海拔沿海地区。[203][204]

3.2 生物多样性 | Biodiversity

Main articles: Wildlife of Vietnam, Environmental issues in Vietnam, List of endangered species in Vietnam, and Protected areas of Vietnam【主条目：越南野生动物、越南环境问题、越南濒危物种名单和越南保护区】

As the country is located within the Indomalayan realm, Vietnam is one of twenty-five countries considered to possess a uniquely high level of biodiversity. This was noted in the country’s National Environmental Condition Report in 2005.^[205] It is ranked 16th worldwide in biological diversity, being home to approximately 16% of the world’s species. 15,986 species of flora have been identified in the country, of which 10% are endemic. Vietnam’s fauna includes 307 nematode species, 200 oligochaeta, 145 acarina, 113 springtails, 7,750 insects, 260 reptiles, and 120 amphibians. There are 840 birds and 310 mammals are found in Vietnam, of which 100 birds and 78 mammals are endemic.^[205] Vietnam has two World Natural Heritage Sites—the Hạ Long Bay and Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park—together with nine biosphere reserves, including Cần Giờ Mangrove Forest, Cát Tiên, Cát Bà, Kiên Giang, the Red River Delta, Mekong Delta, Western Nghệ An, Cà Mau, and Cu Lao Cham Marine Park.^{[206][207][208]}
【参考译文】由于该国位于印度-马来生物地理界内，越南是被认定为具有独特高水平生物多样性的二十五个国家之一。这一点在2005年越南国家环境状况报告中有所提及。[205] 越南在全球生物多样性排名中位列第16，拥有大约全球16%的物种。在越南已确定有15,986种植物种类，其中10%是特有的。越南的动物种类包括307种线虫、200种寡毛纲、145种蜱螨目、113种弹尾目、7,750种昆虫、260种爬行动物和120种两栖动物。越南有840种鸟类和310种哺乳动物，其中100种鸟类和78种哺乳动物是特有的。[205] 越南有两个世界自然遗产地——下龙湾和风芽-格邦国家公园——以及九个生物圈保护区，包括芹苴红树林、猫田、Cat Ba、坚江、红河三角洲、湄公河三角洲、西部义安、卡马和会安海洋公园。[206][207][208]

Vietnam is also home to 1,438 species of freshwater microalgae, constituting 9.6% of all microalgae species, as well as 794 aquatic invertebrates and 2,458 species of sea fish.^[205] In recent years, 13 genera, 222 species, and 30 taxa of flora have been newly described in Vietnam.^[205] Six new mammal species, including the saola, giant muntjac and Tonkin snub-nosed monkey have also been discovered, along with one new bird species, the endangered Edwards’s pheasant.^[209] In the late 1980s, a small population of Javan rhinoceros was found in Cát Tiên National Park. However, the last individual of the species in Vietnam was reportedly shot in 2010.^[210] In agricultural genetic diversity, Vietnam is one of the world’s twelve original cultivar centres. The Vietnam National Cultivar Gene Bank preserves 12,300 cultivars of 115 species.^[205] The Vietnamese government spent US$49.07 million on the preservation of biodiversity in 2004 alone and has established 126 conservation areas, including 30 national parks.^[205]
【参考译文】越南还拥有1,438种淡水微藻，占所有微藻种类的9.6%，以及794种水生无脊椎动物和2,458种海鱼。[205] 近年来，在越南新描述了13个属、222个种和30个植物分类单元。[205] 还发现了六种新的哺乳动物物种，包括Saola（双角羚）、巨林鹿和东黑冠猴，以及一种新的鸟类——濒危的爱德华雉鸡。[209] 在20世纪80年代末，在猫田国家公园发现了一小群爪哇犀牛。然而，据报道，越南最后一只该物种的个体在2010年被猎杀。[210] 在农业遗传多样性方面，越南是世界十二个原始栽培中心之一。越南国家栽培基因库保存了115种作物的12,300个品种。[205] 越南政府仅在2004年就花费了4907万美元用于保护生物多样性，并建立了126个保护区，包括30个国家公园。[205]

In Vietnam, wildlife poaching has become a major concern. In 2000, a non-governmental organisation (NGO) called Education for Nature – Vietnam was founded to instill in the population the importance of wildlife conservation in the country.^[211] In the years that followed, another NGO called GreenViet was formed by Vietnamese youngsters for the enforcement of wildlife protection. Through collaboration between the NGOs and local authorities, many local poaching syndicates were crippled by their leaders’ arrests.^[211] A study released in 2018 revealed Vietnam is a destination for the illegal export of rhinoceros horns from South Africa due to the demand for them as a medicine and a status symbol.^[212][213]
【参考译文】在越南，野生动物偷猎已成为一个主要问题。2000年，一家名为“自然教育—越南”的非政府组织（NGO）成立，旨在向民众灌输保护国内野生动物的重要性。[211] 此后，另一家名为GreenViet的非政府组织由越南的年轻人成立，以执行野生动物保护工作。通过非政府组织与地方政府的合作，许多当地的偷猎团伙因其头目的被捕而被削弱。[211] 2018年发布的一项研究显示，由于对犀牛角作为药物和身份象征的需求，越南已成为南非非法出口犀牛角的目的地。[212][213]

The main environmental concern that persists in Vietnam today is the legacy of the use of the chemical herbicide Agent Orange, which continues to cause birth defects and many health problems in the Vietnamese population. In the southern and central areas affected most by the chemical’s use during the Vietnam War, nearly 4.8 million Vietnamese people have been exposed to it and suffered from its effects.^{[214][215][216]} In 2012, approximately 50 years after the war,^[217] the US began a US$43 million joint clean-up project in the former chemical storage areas in Vietnam to take place in stages.^[215][218] Following the completion of the first phase in Đà Nẵng in late 2017,^[219] the US announced its commitment to clean other sites, especially in the heavily impacted site of Biên Hòa.^[220]
【参考译文】目前在越南持续存在的主要环境问题是化学除草剂橙剂使用的遗留影响，这继续导致越南人口中出现出生缺陷和多种健康问题。在越南战争期间最受该化学品影响的南部和中部地区，近480万越南人暴露于橙剂之中并遭受其影响。[214][215][216] 在战争结束大约50年后的2012年，[217] 美国开始了一项耗资4300万美元的联合清理项目，旨在分阶段清理越南前化学储存区。[215][218] 在2017年末完成岘港的第一阶段清理工作后，[219] 美国宣布承诺清理其他地点，特别是受影响严重的 Bien Hoa 地区。[220]

The Vietnamese government spends over VNĐ10 trillion each year ($431.1 million) for monthly allowances and the physical rehabilitation of victims of the chemicals.^[221] In 2018, the Japanese engineering group Shimizu Corporation, working with Vietnamese military, built a plant for the treatment of soil polluted by Agent Orange. Plant construction costs were funded by the company itself.^[222][223] One of the long-term plans to restore southern Vietnam’s damaged ecosystems is through the use of reforestation efforts. The Vietnamese government began doing this at the end of the war. It started by replanting mangrove forests in the Mekong Delta regions and in Cần Giờ outside Hồ Chí Minh City, where mangroves are important to ease (though not eliminate) flood conditions during monsoon seasons.^[224] The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.35/10, ranking it 104th globally out of 172 countries.^[225]
【参考译文】越南政府每年花费超过10万亿越南盾（约合4.311亿美元）用于向受化学物质影响的受害者提供每月的津贴和身体康复。[221] 2018年，日本工程集团清水公司与越南军方合作，建造了一座处理受橙剂污染土壤的工厂。工厂建设成本由该公司自行承担。[222][223] 恢复越南南部受损生态系统的长期计划之一是通过重新造林的努力。越南政府在战争结束时就开始了这项工作。首先是在湄公河三角洲地区以及胡志明市外的芹苴重新种植红树林，因为红树林对于缓解（尽管不能消除）季风季节的洪水情况非常重要。[224] 该国在2019年的森林景观完整性指数平均得分为5.35/10，在全球172个国家中排名第104位。[225]

Apart from herbicide problems, arsenic in the ground water in the Mekong and Red River Deltas has also become a major concern.^[226][227] And most notoriously, unexploded ordnances (UXO) pose dangers to humans and wildlife—another bitter legacy from the long wars.^[228] As part of the continuous campaign to demine/remove UXOs, several international bomb removal agencies from the United Kingdom,^[229] Denmark,^[230] South Korea^[231] and the US^[232] have been providing assistance. The Vietnam government spends over VNĐ1 trillion ($44 million) annually on demining operations and additional hundreds of billions of đồng for treatment, assistance, rehabilitation, vocational training and resettlement of the victims of UXOs.^[233]
【参考译文】除了除草剂问题之外，湄公河和红河三角洲地下水中的砷也成为了一个主要关切点。[226][227] 最臭名昭著的是，未爆炸的弹药（UXO）对人类和野生动物构成了威胁——这是长期战争留下的另一个痛苦遗产。[228] 作为持续排雷/清除未爆弹行动的一部分，来自英国、[229] 丹麦、[230] 韩国[231] 和美国[232] 的几家国际炸弹清除机构一直在提供援助。越南政府每年花费超过1万亿越南盾（约合4400万美元）用于排雷行动，并额外支出数百亿越南盾用于治疗、援助、康复、职业培训和未爆炸弹药受害者的安置。[233]

4. 政府和政治 | Government and politics

Main articles: Politics of Vietnam and Government of Vietnam【主条目：越南政治和越南政府】

Vietnam is a unitary Marxist-Leninist one-party socialist republic, one of the two communist states (the other being Laos) in Southeast Asia.^[234] Although Vietnam remains officially committed to socialism as its defining creed, its economic policies have grown increasingly capitalist,^[235][236] with The Economist characterising its leadership as “ardently capitalist communists”.^[237] Under the constitution, the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) asserts their role in all branches of the country’s politics and society.^[234] The president is the elected head of state and the commander-in-chief of the military, serving as the chairman of the Council of Supreme Defence and Security, and holds the second highest office in Vietnam as well as performing executive functions and state appointments and setting policy.^[234]
【参考译文】越南是一个单一制的马列主义一党制社会主义共和国，是东南亚两个共产主义国家之一（另一个是老挝）。[234] 尽管越南官方仍然坚持社会主义为其指导思想，但其经济政策越来越倾向于资本主义，[235][236] 《经济学人》杂志将其领导层描述为“热衷资本主义的共产党人”。[237] 根据宪法，越南共产党（CPV）宣称其在国家政治和社会各个领域的领导作用。[234] 总统是经选举产生的国家元首和武装力量的最高统帅，担任最高国防与安全委员会主席，并持有越南第二高的职位，同时履行行政职能和国家任命，并制定政策。[234]

The general secretary of the CPV performs numerous key administrative functions, controlling the party’s national organisation.^[234] The prime minister is the head of government, presiding over a council of ministers composed of five deputy prime ministers and the heads of 26 ministries and commissions. Only political organisations affiliated with or endorsed by the CPV are permitted to contest elections in Vietnam. These include the Vietnamese Fatherland Front and worker and trade unionist parties.^[234]
【参考译文】越南共产党的总书记履行多项关键的行政职能，掌控着党的全国组织。[234] 总理是政府首脑，主持由五位副总理和26个部委及委员会负责人组成的部长会议。只有与越南共产党有关联或得到其认可的政治组织才被允许参加越南的选举。这些组织包括越南祖国阵线及工人和工会政党。[234]

The National Assembly of Vietnam is the unicameral state legislature composed of 500 members.^[238] Headed by a chairman, it is superior to both the executive and judicial branches, with all government ministers being appointed from members of the National Assembly.^[234] The Supreme People’s Court of Vietnam, headed by a chief justice, is the country’s highest court of appeal, though it is also answerable to the National Assembly. Beneath the Supreme People’s Court stand the provincial municipal courts and many local courts. Military courts possess special jurisdiction in matters of state security. Vietnam maintains the death penalty for numerous offences.^[239]
【参考译文】越南国会是单一议院的国家立法机构，由500名成员组成。[238] 由主席领导的国会高于行政和司法部门，所有政府部长都是从国会成员中任命的。[234] 越南最高人民法院是首席法官领导下的最高上诉法院，虽然它也需向国会负责。在最高人民法院之下是省级市政法院和许多地方法院。军事法院在国家安全事务上有特别管辖权。越南对多种罪行保留死刑。[239]

In 2023, a three-person collective leadership was responsible for governing Vietnam. President Võ Văn Thưởng,^[240] Prime Minister Phạm Minh Chính (since 2021)^[241] and the most powerful leader Nguyễn Phú Trọng (since 2011) as the Communist Party of Vietnam’s General Secretary.^[242] On 22 May 2024, Tô Lâm, who previously served as the Minister of Public Security, was voted as the president of Vietnam by the National Assembly after Võ Văn Thưởng resigned on the same year due to corruption charges against him.^[243] On 3 August 2024, Tô Lâm, who is also serving as the president, was elected by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Vietnam as the general secretary following the death of Nguyễn Phú Trọng on 19 July 2024.^[244][245]
【参考译文】2023年，一个三人集体领导体制负责治理越南。总统吴文赏，[240] 总理范明政（自2021年起），[241] 以及最有权力的领导人阮富仲，自2011年起担任越南共产党总书记。[242] 2024年5月22日，在吴文赏因腐败指控于同年辞职后，曾任公安部部长的苏林被国会投票选为越南总统。[243] 2024年8月3日，在阮富仲于2024年7月19日去世后，同样担任总统的苏林被越南共产党中央委员会选举为总书记。[244][245]

4.1 行政区划 | Administrative divisions

Main article: Subdivisions of Vietnam【主条目：越南的行政区划】

参见：越南行政区划、越南城市列表、按人口排列的越南城市列表和越南县级行政区列表

越南国会的第十次会议将全国区分为58个省（越南语：Tỉnh／省^?）^[29]及5个直辖市（越南语：Thành phố trực thuộc trung ương／城庯直屬中央^?）。其中，首都河内是全国的政治、文化中心，胡志明市是全国最大的港口城市和商业、经济中心，海防是全国第三大城市和北部重要港口城市，岘港是全国第四大城市和中部重要港口城市，芹苴是全国第五大城市和南部九龙江三角洲的重要城市。

4.2 国际关系 | Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Vietnam【主条目：越南的外交关系】

参见：中越关系、美越关系、韩越关系、马来西亚－越南关系、越南建交列表和越南外交

Throughout its history, Vietnam’s main foreign relationship has been with various Chinese dynasties.^[247] Following the partition of Vietnam in 1954, North Vietnam maintained relations with the Eastern Bloc, South Vietnam maintained relations with the Western Bloc.^[247] Despite these differences, Vietnam’s sovereign principles and insistence on cultural independence have been laid down in numerous documents over the centuries before its independence. These include the 11th-century patriotic poem “Nam quốc sơn hà” and the 1428 proclamation of independence “Bình Ngô đại cáo“. Though China and Vietnam are now formally at peace,^[247] significant territorial tensions remain between the two countries over the South China Sea.^[248] Vietnam holds membership in 63 international organisations, including the United Nations (UN), Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), International Organisation of the Francophonie (La Francophonie), and World Trade Organization (WTO). It also maintains relations with over 650 non-governmental organisations.^[249] As of 2010 Vietnam had established diplomatic relations with 178 countries.^[250]
【参考译文】在其历史长河中，越南的主要对外关系一直与中国各个朝代有关。[247] 1954年越南分裂后，北越与东方集团保持关系，而南越则与西方集团保持关系。[247] 尽管存在这些差异，越南的主权原则和坚持文化独立的精神在独立前几个世纪的各种文件中都有所体现。这些文件包括11世纪的爱国诗篇《南国山河》和1428年的独立宣言《平吴大诰》。尽管现在中国和越南正式处于和平状态，[247] 两国在中国南海问题上仍存在重大的领土争端。[248] 越南是63个国际组织的成员，包括联合国（UN）、东南亚国家联盟（ASEAN）、不结盟运动（NAM）、国际法语组织（La Francophonie）和世界贸易组织（WTO）。越南还与650多个非政府组织保持关系。[249] 截至2010年，越南已经与178个国家建立了外交关系。[250]

Vietnam’s current foreign policy is to consistently implement a policy of independence, self-reliance, peace, co-operation, and development, as well openness, diversification, multilateralisation with international relations.^[251][252] The country declares itself a friend and partner of all countries in the international community, regardless of their political affiliation, by actively taking part in international and regional cooperative development projects.^[170][251] Since the 1990s, Vietnam has taken several key steps to restore diplomatic ties with capitalist Western countries. It already had relations with communist Western countries in the decades prior.^[253] Relations with the United States began improving in August 1995 with both states upgrading their liaison offices to embassy status.^[254] As diplomatic ties between the two governments grew, the United States opened a consulate general in Ho Chi Minh City while Vietnam opened its consulate in San Francisco. Full diplomatic relations were also restored with New Zealand, which opened its embassy in Hanoi in 1995;^[255] Vietnam established an embassy in Wellington in 2003.^[256] President of the United States, Bill Clinton, made a historic visit to Vietnam in November 2000. He was the first U.S. leader ever to officially visit Hanoi and the first to visit Vietnam since U.S. troops withdrew from the country in 1975.^[257] Pakistan also reopened its embassy in Hanoi in October 2000, with Vietnam reopening its embassy in Islamabad in December 2005 and trade office in Karachi in November 2005.^[258][259] In May 2016, US President Barack Obama further normalised relations with Vietnam after he announced the lifting of an arms embargo on sales of lethal arms to Vietnam.^[260] Despite their historical past, today Vietnam is considered to be a potential ally of the United States, especially in the geopolitical context of the territorial disputes in the South China Sea and in containment of Chinese expansionism.^{[261][262][263]}
【参考译文】越南当前的外交政策是一贯实施独立自主、和平、合作与发展政策，并且保持开放、多样化、多边化国际关系。[251][252] 该国宣称自己是国际社会所有国家的朋友和伙伴，不论它们的政治归属如何，通过积极参与国际和区域合作发展项目。[170][251] 自20世纪90年代以来，越南采取了几项关键步骤来恢复与资本主义西方国家的外交关系。此前几十年，它已经与西方共产主义国家建立了关系。[253] 与美国的关系始于1995年8月双方将联络办事处升级为大使馆级别后开始改善。[254] 随着两国政府间外交关系的增长，美国在胡志明市开设总领事馆，而越南也在旧金山开设领事馆。新西兰与越南也在1995年恢复了全面外交关系，并在河内开设大使馆；[255] 越南则在2003年在惠灵顿建立了大使馆。[256] 2000年11月，美国总统比尔·克林顿对越南进行了历史性访问。他是首位正式访问河内的美国总统，也是1975年美军撤离后首位访问越南的美国总统。[257] 巴基斯坦也在2000年10月重新在河内开设了大使馆，而越南则在2005年12月重新在伊斯兰堡开设大使馆，并在2005年11月在卡拉奇开设了贸易办公室。[258][259] 2016年5月，美国总统巴拉克·奥巴马宣布解除对越南致命武器销售的禁令后，进一步实现了与越南关系的正常化。[260] 尽管有着历史上的纠葛，今天越南被视为美国的潜在盟友，特别是在涉及中国南海领土争端和遏制中国扩张主义的地缘政治背景下。[261][262][263]

越南现已与193个国家建交，并同20个国际组织及480多个非政府组织建立合作关系。越对当前重大国际问题的态度如下：

• 国际形势：当前国际形势复杂多变，但和平、稳定与发展仍是时代的主流。越将继续奉行独立自主、全方位、多样化的和平外交政策，努力维护和平稳定的周边环境，全力以赴发展经济。
• 反恐问题：谴责和反对一切形式的恐怖活动，愿与美国以及国际社会进行反恐合作。强调国际社会必须在尊重联合国宪章、国际法、民族独立和国家主权的基础上进行努力，把恐怖主义从人类生活中彻底铲除。同时呼吁美国及其它国家同越合作，严厉打击反越恐怖阴谋和活动。
• 伊拉克问题：谴责和反对美英对伊拉克人民的军事行动，主张早日恢复伊拉克的和平、安全与稳定，减少战争对伊拉克人民造成的损害，保障伊拉克人民的主权、领土完整和自决权，以便尽早克服战争后果和进行国家重建。联合国应在整个过程中发挥重要作用，越愿通过联合国和其他国际组织参与伊拉克重建。
• 巴以冲突：认为巴以冲突的解决应根据联合国安理会第242和338号决议以及巴以之间迄今达成的各项协议，确保巴勒斯坦人民的基本民族权利，包括有权成立独立的巴勒斯坦国。呼吁巴以均保持克制，强调只有停止暴力，恢复和谈，才能找到公平长久的解决办法。
• 朝韩问题：朝鲜民主主义人民共和国于1990年代，自1992年中国与韩国建交后，在外交上向越南表示亲近，虽然越南跟中国一样在1990年代建立起社会主义市场经济，但与中国在南中国海诸多岛屿有主权争议与冲突可能^[22]。其后两国虽然保持外交关系，但相当冷淡。1996年以后两国经贸关系几乎为零^[23]，直到21世纪初两国领导才恢复互访，2007年10月越共中央总书记农德孟受朝鲜劳动党总书记金正日邀请访朝^[24]，金正日亲自接送农德孟，规格颇高。
  1998年，韩国总统金大中访越期间，对越南战争中大韩民国国军跟随美国出兵越南表示遗憾，2001年8月，越南社会主义共和国主席陈德良访韩期间，金大中亦官方性的表明谢罪的态度，“我们参加了不幸的战争，并与本意相违的给越南国民增加了苦痛，对此深表歉意、抚慰亡者”^[25][26]。2004年韩国总统卢武铉访越期间表示“韩国国民心有亏欠。很希望看到越南成功”^[27]。2004年10月10日下午，韩国总统卢武铉与越南政府总理潘文凯、越共中央总书记农德孟相继进行关于促进经济合作、加强两国关系的会谈。卢武铉总统与潘文凯总理在该日签署能源、信息通信等方面的合作协议。之后，卢武铉总统访问越南共产党中央办公厅并会见侬德孟总书记，双方表示将在朝鲜半岛和平与国家间合作方面增进合作关系^[28]。

4.3 军事 | Military

Main article: Vietnam People’s Armed Forces【主条目：越南人民军】

主条目：越南军事

越南宪法规定，越南国家主席名义上统率全国武装力量，领导国防与安全委员会。越南共产党中央军事委员会是越共中央政治局处理军事和国防工作的常设机构，代表中央政治局对国防和军事工作行使决策权，是实际上的最高军事领导机构。越共中央军事党委通过国防部指挥越南人民军。

The Vietnam People’s Armed Forces consists of the Vietnam People’s Army (VPA), the Vietnam People’s Public Security and the Vietnam Self-Defence Militia. The VPA is the official name for the active military services of Vietnam, and is subdivided into the Vietnam People’s Ground Forces, the Vietnam People’s Navy, the Vietnam People’s Air Force, the Vietnam Border Guard and the Vietnam Coast Guard. The VPA has an active manpower of around 450,000, but its total strength, including paramilitary forces, may be as high as 5,000,000.^[264] In 2015, Vietnam’s military expenditure totalled approximately US$4.4 billion, equivalent to around 8% of its total government spending.^[265] Joint military exercises and war games have been held with Brunei,^[266] India,^[267] Japan,^[268] Laos,^[269] Russia,^[270] Singapore^[266] and the US.^[271] In 2017, Vietnam signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.^[272][273]
【参考译文】越南人民武装部队由越南人民军（VPA）、越南人民公安和越南自卫民兵组成。VPA是越南现役军事部队的正式名称，其下设越南人民陆军、越南人民海军、越南人民空军、越南边防部队和越南海警部队。VPA现役军人约为45万人，但包括准军事部队在内的总兵力可能高达500万人。[264] 2015年，越南的军费开支总计约44亿美元，相当于其总政府支出的大约8%。[265] 越南与文莱、[266] 印度、[267] 日本、[268] 老挝、[269] 俄罗斯、[270] 新加坡[266] 和美国[271] 进行了联合军事演习和战争游戏。2017年，越南签署了联合国禁止核武器条约。[272][273]

4.4 人权和社会政治问题 | Human rights and sociopolitical issues

See also: Human rights in Vietnam【参见：越南的人权】

Under the current constitution, the CPV is the only party allowed to rule, the operation of all other political parties being outlawed. Other human rights issues concern freedom of association, freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and freedom of the press. In 2009, Vietnamese lawyer Lê Công Định was arrested and charged with the capital crime of subversion; several of his associates were also arrested.^[274][275] Amnesty International described him and his arrested associates as prisoners of conscience.^[274] Vietnam has also suffered from human trafficking and related issues.^{[276][277][278]}
【参考译文】根据现行宪法，越南共产党是唯一获准执政的政党，其他所有政党的活动均被禁止。其他人权问题涉及结社自由、言论自由、宗教自由和新闻自由。2009 年，越南律师黎公定被捕，并被指控犯有颠覆罪；他的几名同事也被捕。[274][275] 国际特赦组织将他和被捕的同事描述为良心犯。[274] 越南还遭受人口贩运及相关问题的困扰。[276][277][278]

5. 经济 | Economy

Main article: Economy of Vietnam / 主条目：越南经济

Throughout the history of Vietnam, its economy has been based largely on agriculture—primarily wet rice cultivation.^[279] Bauxite, an important material in the production of aluminium, is mined in central Vietnam.^[280] Since reunification, the country’s economy is shaped primarily by the CPV through Five Year Plans decided upon at the plenary sessions of the Central Committee and national congresses.^[281] The collectivisation of farms, factories, and capital goods was carried out as part of the establishment of central planning, with millions of people working for state enterprises. Under strict state control, Vietnam’s economy continued to be plagued by inefficiency, corruption in state-owned enterprises, poor quality and underproduction.^{[282][283][284]} With the decline in economic aid from its main trading partner, the Soviet Union, following the erosion of the Eastern bloc in the late 1980s, and the subsequent collapse of the Soviet Union, as well as the negative impacts of the post-war trade embargo imposed by the United States,^[285][286] Vietnam began to liberalise its trade by devaluing its exchange rate to increase exports and embarked on a policy of economic development.^[287]
【参考译文】在越南的历史中，其经济主要依赖农业，特别是水稻种植。[279] 在越南中部开采铝生产的重要原料——铝土矿。[280] 自统一以来，该国的经济主要由越南共产党通过在中央委员会全体会议和全国代表大会上决定的五年计划来规划。[281] 作为建立中央计划经济的一部分，农场、工厂和资本货物的集体化得以实施，数百万人在国有企业中工作。在严格的国家控制下，越南经济继续受到效率低下、国有企业腐败、产品质量差和产量不足等问题的困扰。[282][283][284] 随着20世纪80年代末东欧集团的瓦解以及随后苏联的解体，加之其主要贸易伙伴苏联提供的经济援助减少，以及美国实施的战后贸易禁运带来的负面影响，[285][286] 越南开始通过贬值其汇率以增加出口，并着手推行经济发展政策来开放贸易。[287]

In 1986, the Sixth National Congress of the CPV introduced socialist-oriented market economic reforms as part of the Đổi Mới reform program. Private ownership began to be encouraged in industry, commerce and agriculture and state enterprises were restructured to operate under market constraints.^[288][289] This led to the five-year economic plans being replaced by the socialist-oriented market mechanism.^[290] As a result of these reforms, Vietnam achieved approximately 8% annual gross domestic product (GDP) growth between 1990 and 1997.^[291][292] The United States ended its economic embargo against Vietnam in early 1994.^[293] Although the 1997 Asian financial crisis caused an economic slowdown to 4–5% growth per year, its economy began to recover in 1999,^[288] and grew at around 7% per year from 2000 to 2005, one of the fastest in the world.^[294][295] On 11 January 2007, Vietnam became the 150th member of the WTO (World Trade Organization).^[296] According to the General Statistics Office of Vietnam (GSO), growth remained strong despite the late-2000s global recession, holding at 6.8% in 2010. Vietnam’s year-on-year inflation rate reached 11.8% in December 2010 and the currency, the Vietnamese đồng, was devalued three times.^[297][298]
【参考译文】1986年，越南共产党第六次全国代表大会引入了作为“革新”（Đổi Mới）改革计划一部分的社会主义方向的市场经济改革。私营所有权在工业、商业和农业领域开始受到鼓励，国有企业也被重组以适应市场约束进行运作。[288][289] 这导致了五年经济计划被社会主义方向的市场机制所取代。[290] 由于这些改革，越南在1990年至1997年间实现了约8%的年度国内生产总值（GDP）增长。[291][292] 美国在1994年初结束了对越南的经济禁运。[293] 尽管1997年的亚洲金融危机导致经济增长放缓至每年4-5%，但其经济在1999年开始复苏，[288] 并从2000年到2005年每年增长约7%，成为世界上增长最快的经济体之一。[294][295] 2007年1月11日，越南成为世界贸易组织（WTO）的第150个成员国。[296] 根据越南统计总局（GSO）的数据，尽管遭遇了2000年代末期的全球经济衰退，但增长依然强劲，2010年保持在6.8%。2010年12月，越南的同比通货膨胀率达到11.8%，货币越南盾被三次贬值。[297][298]

越南自2007年加入世界贸易组织（WTO）以来，通过引进外资，大力建设工业园区，发展出口导向型经济，承接全球产业供应链转移，开始成为全球海外投资重要目的地及亚洲新兴的制造业中心^[41]，从农业国逐步成为电子产品生产和出口国，自2012年开始，电子产品成为越南最大的出口产品^[42]。越南是全球第二大纺织品服装出口国^[43]，纺织业和服装制造业是越南的主要产业之一，纺织品及服装出口量居全国第二位^[44]。

Deep poverty, defined as the percentage of the population living on less than $1 per day, has declined significantly in Vietnam and the relative poverty rate is now less than that of China, India and the Philippines.^[299] This decline can be attributed to equitable economic policies aimed at improving living standards and preventing the rise of inequality.^[300] These policies have included egalitarian land distribution during the initial stages of the Đổi Mới program, investment in poorer remote areas, and subsidising of education and healthcare.^[301][302] Since the early 2000s, Vietnam has applied sequenced trade liberalisation, a two-track approach opening some sectors of the economy to international markets.^[300][303] Manufacturing, information technology and high-tech industries now form a large and fast-growing part of the national economy. Although Vietnam is a relative newcomer to the oil industry, it is the third-largest oil producer in Southeast Asia with a total 2011 output of 318,000 barrels per day (50,600 m³/d).^[304] In 2010, Vietnam was ranked as the eighth-largest crude petroleum producer in the Asia and Pacific region.^[305] The US bought the biggest share of Vietnam’s exports,^[306] while goods from China were the most popular Vietnamese import.^[307]
【参考译文】深度贫困，定义为生活在每天不到1美元收入标准下的人口比例，在越南已经显著下降，相对贫困率现在低于中国、印度和菲律宾。[299] 这种下降归因于旨在提高生活水平和防止不平等加剧的公平经济政策。[300] 这些政策包括在革新计划初期阶段实行的土地分配平等化、对较贫穷偏远地区的投资以及对教育和医疗保健的补贴。[301][302] 自21世纪初以来，越南逐步实施了贸易自由化，采取了开放经济某些部门进入国际市场的双轨方法。[300][303] 制造业、信息技术和高科技产业现在构成了国民经济中一个庞大且快速增长的部分。尽管越南是石油行业的后来者，但它却是东南亚第三大石油生产国，2011年的总产量为每天318,000桶（50,600立方米）。[304] 2010年，越南被列为亚太地区第八大原油生产国。[305] 美国是越南出口商品的最大买家，[306] 而来自中国的商品则是最受欢迎的越南进口商品。[307]

Based on findings by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 2022, the unemployment rate in Vietnam was 2.3%, the nominal GDP US$406.452 billion, and a nominal GDP per capita $4,086.^[12][308] Besides the primary sector economy, tourism has contributed significantly to Vietnam’s economic growth with 7.94 million foreign visitors recorded in 2015.^[309]
【参考译文】根据国际货币基金组织（IMF）在2022年的数据，越南的失业率为2.3%，名义国内生产总值为4064.52亿美元，人均名义国内生产总值为4086美元。[12][308] 除了第一产业经济外，旅游业对越南的经济增长也做出了重大贡献，2015年记录的外国游客人数达到了794万人次。[309]

5.1 农业 | Agriculture

越南的地理位置和自然条件十分有利于农业活动，盛产稻米、热带作物和水产品，是东南亚的农产品出口大国，越南是全球腰果加工、出口第一大国^[39]，约占世界腰果出口量的80％，全球第二大稻米出口国，全球第二大咖啡出口国、最大罗布斯塔咖啡出口国^[40]。

As a result of several land reform measures, Vietnam has become a major exporter of agricultural products. It is now the world’s largest producer of cashew nuts, with a one-third global share;^[310] the largest producer of black pepper, accounting for one-third of the world’s market;^[311] and the second-largest rice exporter in the world after Thailand since the 1990s.^[312] Subsequently, Vietnam is also the world’s second largest exporter of coffee.^[313] The country has the highest proportion of land use for permanent crops together with other states in the Greater Mekong Subregion.^[314] Other primary exports include tea, rubber and fishery products. Agriculture’s share of Vietnam’s GDP has fallen in recent decades, declining from 42% in 1989 to 20% in 2006 as production in other sectors of the economy has risen.
【参考译文】由于几项土地改革措施，越南已经成为农产品的主要出口国。如今，它是世界上最大的腰果生产国，占据了全球三分之一的市场份额；[310] 它还是最大的黑胡椒生产国，占全球市场的三分之一；[311] 自20世纪90年代以来，它一直是仅次于泰国的世界第二大稻米出口国。[312] 此外，越南还是世界第二大咖啡出口国。[313] 该国与大湄公河次区域的其他国家一样，拥有最高的永久作物用地比例。[314] 其他主要出口产品包括茶叶、橡胶和渔业产品。近年来，随着经济其他部门生产的增加，农业在越南国内生产总值（GDP）中的份额已经下降，从1989年的42%降至2006年的20%。[315]

海鲜 | Seafood

The overall fisheries production of Vietnam from capture fisheries and aquaculture was 5.6 million MT in 2011 and 6.7 million MT in 2016. The output of Vietnam’s fisheries sector has seen strong growth, which could be attributed to the continued expansion of the aquaculture sub-sector.^[315]
【参考译文】2011年越南捕捞渔业和水产养殖的总产量为560万吨，到2016年这一数字增长到了670万吨。越南渔业部门的产出经历了强劲的增长，这可以归因于水产养殖子行业的持续扩张。[315]

5.2 科学和技术 | Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology in Vietnam【主条目：越南科学技术】

In 2010, Vietnam’s total state spending on science and technology amounted to roughly 0.45% of its GDP.^[318] Vietnamese scientists have made many significant contributions in various fields of study, most notably in mathematics. Hoàng Tụy pioneered the applied mathematics field of global optimisation in the 20th century,^[319] while Ngô Bảo Châu won the 2010 Fields Medal for his proof of fundamental lemma in the theory of automorphic forms.^[320][321] Since the establishment of the Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology (VAST) by the government in 1975, the country is working to develop its first national space flight program especially after the completion of the infrastructure at the Vietnam Space Centre (VSC) in 2018.^[322][323] Vietnam has also made significant advances in the development of robots, such as the TOPIO humanoid model.^[316][317] One of Vietnam’s main messaging apps, Zalo, was developed by Vương Quang Khải, a Vietnamese hacker who later worked with the country’s largest information technology service company, the FPT Group.^[324]
【参考译文】2010年，越南在科技方面的国家总支出约占其国内生产总值（GDP）的0.45%。[318] 越南科学家在各种研究领域做出了许多重要的贡献，尤其是在数学方面。Hoàng Tụy在20世纪开创了应用数学领域中的全局优化，[319] 而Ngô Bảo Châu因为在自守形式理论中的基础引理证明而获得了2010年的菲尔兹奖章。[320][321] 自1975年政府建立越南科学技术院（VAST）以来，该国一直在努力开发其首个国家太空飞行计划，特别是在2018年越南航天中心（VSC）基础设施完成后。[322][323] 越南在机器人开发方面也取得了显著进展，例如TOPIO人形机器人模型。[316][317] 越南主要的即时通讯应用之一Zalo是由越南黑客吴光凯开发的，后者后来与该国最大的信息技术服务公司FPT集团合作。[324]

According to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, Vietnam devoted 0.19% of its GDP to science research and development in 2011.^[325] Vietnam was ranked 46th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023, it has increased its ranking considerably since 2012, where it was ranked 76th.^[326][327] Between 2005 and 2014, the number of Vietnamese scientific publications recorded in Thomson Reuters’ Web of Science increased at a rate well above the average for Southeast Asia, albeit from a modest starting point.^[328] Publications focus mainly on life sciences (22%), physics (13%) and engineering (13%), which is consistent with recent advances in the production of diagnostic equipment and shipbuilding.^[328]
【参考译文】根据联合国教科文组织统计研究所的数据，2011年越南将其GDP的0.19%用于科学研究与开发。[325] 2023年，越南在全球创新指数排名中位列第46位，自2012年以来其排名有了显著提升，当时它的排名是第76位。[326][327] 在2005年至2014年期间，记录在汤森路透科学网（Web of Science）中的越南科研出版物数量的增长速度远高于东南亚平均水平，尽管其起点较低。[328] 出版物主要集中在生命科学（22%）、物理学（13%）和工程学（13%），这与最近在诊断设备生产和造船方面的进步相一致。[328]

5.3 旅游业 | Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Vietnam【主条目：越南的旅游业】

Tourism is an important element of economic activity in the nation, contributing 7.5% of the total GDP. Vietnam hosted roughly 13 million tourists in 2017, an increase of 29.1% over the previous year, making it one of the fastest growing tourist destinations in the world. The vast majority of the tourists in the country, some 9.7 million, came from Asia; namely China (4 million), South Korea (2.6 million), and Japan (798,119).^[329] Vietnam also attracts large numbers of visitors from Europe, with almost 1.9 million visitors in 2017; most European visitors came from Russia (574,164), followed by the United Kingdom (283,537), France (255,396), and Germany (199,872). Other significant international arrivals by nationality include the United States (614,117) and Australia (370,438).^[329]
【参考译文】旅游业是该国经济活动的重要组成部分，贡献了7.5%的国内生产总值。2017年，越南接待了大约1300万游客，比前一年增长了29.1%，使其成为世界上增长最快的旅游目的地之一。大部分游客来自亚洲，约有970万人；其中主要是中国（400万），韩国（260万），以及日本（798,119）。[329] 越南还吸引了大量来自欧洲的游客，2017年接近190万；大多数欧洲游客来自俄罗斯（574,164人），其次是英国（283,537人），法国（255,396人），以及德国（199,872人）。其他重要的国际游客来源国包括美国（614,117人）和澳大利亚（370,438人）。[329]

The most visited destinations in Vietnam are the largest city, Ho Chi Minh City, with over 5.8 million international arrivals, followed by Hanoi with 4.6 million and Hạ Long, including Hạ Long Bay with 4.4 million arrivals. All three are ranked in the top 100 most visited cities in the world.^[330] Vietnam is home to eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites. In 2018, Travel + Leisure ranked Hội An as one of the world’s top 15 best destinations to visit.^[331]
【参考译文】越南访问量最大的目的地是最大城市胡志明市，国际游客超过580万人次，其次是河内，有460万人次，以及下龙，包括下龙湾，有440万人次到达。这三个地方都位列全球访问量最大的100个城市之中。[330] 越南拥有八个联合国教科文组织世界遗产地。2018年，《旅游与休闲》杂志将会安评为世界上最值得访问的15个最佳目的地之一。[331]

旅游景点

北部：

• 下龙湾（世界自然遗产^[56]）
• 河内：还剑湖、巴亭广场、文庙。
• 吉婆岛：位属海防市，清静且海水澄静未受破坏，是夏天旅游的好去处。
• 沙坝市社：属于老街，是著名的旅游胜地，自然美景和雄伟的番西邦山峰高达 10,326 英尺。

中部：

• 顺化（古都）：顺化历史建筑群（世界文化遗产）。
• 岘港：岘港大教堂、美溪沙滩、巴拿山、五行山、山茶半岛、占婆雕刻博物馆。
• 美山圣地（世界文化遗产，占婆时代印度教遗迹）
• 会安古城（古老华埠，世界文化遗产）：日本桥、关帝庙和福建、潮州、中华、琼府、广肇、客家六大会馆。
• 风牙者榜国家公园（世界自然遗产，喀斯特地貌）
• 陆龙湾（世界文化遗产）

南部：

• 胡志明市：法式建筑圣母大教堂、市政厅、邮局；堤岸唐人街；战争罪行博物馆、纠支地道。
• 头顿：十里长滩、耶稣山、鲸鱼庙。
• 芽庄：越南最优美的海滩。
• 大叻：高原避暑胜地、欧风城市。
• 美奈：红沙漠、白沙漠。

5.4 交通 | Transport

Main articles: Transport in Vietnam, Rail transport in Vietnam, and List of airports in Vietnam
【主要条目：越南交通、越南铁路运输和越南机场列表】

主条目：越南交通 | 主条目：越南铁路运输

Much of Vietnam’s modern transportation network can trace its roots to the French colonial era when it was used to facilitate the transportation of raw materials to its main ports. It was extensively expanded and modernised following the partition of Vietnam.^[332] Vietnam’s road system includes national roads administered at the central level, provincial roads managed at the provincial level, district roads managed at the district level, urban roads managed by cities and towns and commune roads managed at the commune level.^[333] In 2010, Vietnam’s road system had a total length of about 188,744 kilometres (117,280 mi) of which 93,535 kilometres (58,120 mi) are asphalt roads comprising national, provincial and district roads.^[333] The length of the national road system is about 15,370 kilometres (9,550 mi) with 15,085 kilometres (9,373 mi) of its length paved. The provincial road system has around 27,976 kilometres (17,383 mi) of paved roads while 50,474 kilometres (31,363 mi) district roads are paved.^[333]
【参考译文】越南现代交通运输网络的许多基础可以追溯到法国殖民时期，当时这些网络主要用于将原材料运输到主要港口。在越南分裂之后，这些网络得到了广泛扩展和现代化。[332] 越南的道路系统包括国家级道路（中央管理）、省级道路（省级管理）、区级道路（区级管理）、城镇道路（由城市和城镇管理）以及乡级道路（乡级管理）。[333] 2010年，越南道路系统的总长度约为188,744公里（117,280英里），其中93,535公里（58,120英里）是沥青路面，包括国家级、省级和区级道路。[333] 国家道路系统的总长度约为15,370公里（9,550英里），其中15,085公里（9,373英里）是铺设过的。省级道路系统中约有27,976公里（17,383英里）的铺设道路，而区级道路中有50,474公里（31,363英里）是铺设过的。[333]

越南的国道以数字作为编号，其中1号公路是从中越边境的零公里处起，经过河内、顺化、岘港、芽庄、胡志明市，直至越南最南端的金瓯市，全长2,247公里。而其一号支线则可经过柬越边境的柴桢，直达柬埔寨首都金边。5号公路是河内至海防，该国道也是目前越南运输最繁忙、路况最好的公路干线。7号公路则与老挝境内相接，可达川圹、琅勃拉邦。^[54]

Bicycles, motorcycles and motor scooters remain the most popular forms of road transport in the country, a legacy of the French, though the number of privately owned cars has been increasing in recent years.^[334] Public buses operated by private companies are the main mode of long-distance travel for much of the population. Road accidents remain the major safety issue of Vietnamese transportation with an average of 30 people losing their lives daily.^[335] Traffic congestion is a growing problem in both Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City especially with the growth of individual car ownership.^[336][337]
【参考译文】自行车、摩托车和踏板摩托车仍然是该国最受欢迎的道路交通工具，这是法国遗留下来的传统，尽管近年来私人拥有的汽车数量有所增加。[334] 由私人公司运营的公共汽车是大多数人口长途旅行的主要方式。道路交通事故仍然是越南交通运输安全的主要问题，平均每天有30人因此丧生。[335] 交通拥堵在河内和胡志明市日益成为一个问题，尤其是随着个人汽车拥有量的增长。[336][337]

Vietnam’s primary cross-country rail service is the Reunification Express from Ho Chi Minh City to Hanoi, a distance of nearly 1,726 kilometres (1,072 mi).^[338] From Hanoi, railway lines branch out to the northeast, north, and west; the eastbound line runs from Hanoi to Hạ Long Bay, the northbound line from Hanoi to Thái Nguyên, and the northeast line from Hanoi to Lào Cai. In 2009, Vietnam and Japan signed a deal to build a high-speed railway—shinkansen (bullet train)—using Japanese technology.^[339] Vietnamese engineers were sent to Japan to receive training in the operation and maintenance of high-speed trains.^[340] The planned railway will be a 1,545 kilometres (960 mi)-long express route serving a total of 23 stations, including Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, with 70% of its route running on bridges and through tunnels.^[341][342] The trains will travel at a maximum speed of 350 kilometres (220 mi) per hour.^[342][343] Plans for the high-speed rail line, however, have been postponed after the Vietnamese government decided to prioritise the development of both the Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City metros and expand road networks instead.^{[338][344][345]}
【参考译文】越南主要的跨省铁路服务是从胡志明市到河内的统一快车，距离近1,726公里（1,072英里）。[338] 从河内出发，铁路线向东北、北和西分支；向东的线路从河内运行到下龙湾，向北的线路从河内到太原，而东北方向的线路则从河内延伸到老街。2009年，越南和日本签署了一项协议，利用日本技术建造一条高速铁路——新干线（子弹头列车）。[339] 越南工程师被派往日本接受高速列车操作和维护培训。[340] 规划中的铁路将是一个全长1,545公里（960英里）的快速路线，总共服务于23个车站，包括河内和胡志明市，其中70%的路线将在桥梁和隧道上运行。[341][342] 列车将以每小时最高350公里（220英里）的速度行驶。[342][343] 然而，由于越南政府决定优先发展河内和胡志明市地铁以及扩大公路网络，高速铁路线的计划已被推迟。[338][344][345]

越南铁路全长2,652公里，是东南亚米轨铁路。有两条铁路与中国铁路连接，为国际联运铁道线路。其中西北方向的滇越铁路经老街进入中国云南河口直达昆明，其中越段、滇段皆系米轨；另一条铁路在河内东北方向，经同登进入中国广西凭祥市，与中国铁路网相连接，目前已有河内至北京客运列车，但因轨距不同，需在友谊关换转向架^[54]。越南国内铁路线方面，河内至胡志明市的铁路为主要铁路干线，全长1,730公里，贯穿越南。

Vietnam operates 20 major civil airports, including three international gateways: Noi Bai in Hanoi, Da Nang International Airport in Đà Nẵng and Tan Son Nhat in Ho Chi Minh City. Tan Son Nhat is the country’s largest airport handling the majority of international passenger traffic.^[346] According to a government-approved plan, Vietnam will have another seven international airports by 2025, including Vinh International Airport, Phu Bai International Airport, Cam Ranh International Airport, Phu Quoc International Airport, Cat Bi International Airport, Can Tho International Airport, and Long Thanh International Airport. The planned Long Thanh International Airport will have an annual service capacity of 100 million passengers once it becomes fully operational in 2025.^[347] Vietnam Airlines, the state-owned national airline, maintains a fleet of 86 passenger aircraft and aims to operate 170 by 2020.^[348] Several private airlines also operate in Vietnam, including Air Mekong, Bamboo Airways, Jetstar Pacific Airlines, VASCO and VietJet Air.
【参考译文】越南运营着20个主要的民用机场，其中包括三个国际机场：河内的内排国际机场、岘港的岘港国际机场以及胡志明市的新山一国际机场。新山一是该国最大的机场，处理大部分的国际客运流量。[346] 根据一项经政府批准的计划，到2025年，越南将再拥有七个国际机场，包括荣市国际机场、富拜国际机场、金兰国际机场、富国国际机场、海防国际机场、芹苴国际机场以及龙城国际机场。计划中的龙城国际机场一旦在2025年全面投入运营，将具备每年服务1亿乘客的能力。[347] 越南国家航空公司——越南航空，拥有一支由86架客机组成的机队，并计划到2020年运营170架飞机。[348] 一些私营航空公司也在越南运营，包括湄公航空、越竹航空、捷星太平洋航空、VASCO和越捷航空。

河内内排国际机场、岘港机场以及胡志明市新山一国际机场是越南的三大国际机场，其中国内航线15条，国际航线5条。目前有20个国家和地区的20多家航空公司有飞往越南的定期航班。

• 河内内排国际机场
• 海防吉碑国际机场：多为国内航线
• 岘港岘港国际机场：多为国际航线
• 芽庄金兰国际机场
• 同奈隆城国际机场（兴建中）
• 胡志明市新山一国际机场（扩建中）
• 芹苴芹苴国际机场
• 富国岛富国国际机场

主要航空公司有：

• 越南国家航空
• 捷星太平洋航空
• 越捷航空
• 越竹航空

As a coastal country, Vietnam has many major sea ports, including Cam Ranh, Đà Nẵng, Hải Phòng, Ho Chi Minh City, Hạ Long, Qui Nhơn, Vũng Tàu, Cửa Lò and Nha Trang. Further inland, the country’s extensive network of rivers plays a key role in rural transportation with over 47,130 kilometres (29,290 mi) of navigable waterways carrying ferries, barges and water taxis.^[349]
【参考译文】作为一个沿海国家，越南有许多主要的海港，包括金兰、岘港、海防、胡志明市、下龙、归仁、头顿、炉门和芽庄。此外，该国广泛的河流网络在农村交通中发挥着关键作用，超过47,130公里（29,290英里）的可航行水道承载着渡轮、驳船和水上出租车。[349]

水路方面，越南国内河道很多，内河运输也较为发达。加上越南拥有着3,000多公里长的海岸线，其沿海港口也较为发达，这56个沿海港口对越南的国际、国内运输有着重要的支持作用，其中重要的国际货运港口有海防市和胡志明市。^[54]

5.5 能源 | Energy

Main articles: Energy in Vietnam and List of power stations in Vietnam
【主要条目：越南能源和越南发电站列表】

Vietnam’s energy sector is dominated largely by the state-controlled Vietnam Electricity Group (EVN). As of 2017, EVN made up about 61.4% of the country’s power generation system with a total power capacity of 25,884 MW.^[351] Other energy sources are PetroVietnam (4,435 MW), Vinacomin (1,785 MW) and 10,031 MW from build–operate–transfer (BOT) investors.^[352]
【参考译文】越南的能源部门主要由国有的越南电力集团（EVN）主导。截至2017年，EVN占据了国家电力生产系统的约61.4%，总装机容量为25,884兆瓦。[351] 其他能源来源包括越南石油公司（4,435兆瓦），越南煤炭矿业集团（1,785兆瓦）以及来自建设-经营-转让（BOT）投资者的10,031兆瓦。[352]

Most of Vietnam’s power is generated by either hydropower or fossil fuel power such as coal, oil and gas, while diesel, small hydropower and renewable energy supplies the remainder.^[352] The Vietnamese government had planned to develop a nuclear reactor as the path to establish another source for electricity from nuclear power. The plan was abandoned in late 2016 when a majority of the National Assembly voted to oppose the project due to widespread public concern over radioactive contamination.^[353]
【参考译文】越南的大部分电力来自于水力发电或化石燃料发电，如煤、石油和天然气，而柴油、小型水电和可再生能源供应其余部分。[352] 越南政府曾计划开发核电站作为建立另一个电力来源的方式。然而，这一计划在2016年末被放弃，因为国民议会多数票反对该项目，公众普遍担心放射性污染。[353]

The household gas sector in Vietnam is dominated by PetroVietnam, which controls nearly 70% of the country’s domestic market for liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).^[354] Since 2011, the company also operates five renewable energy power plants including the Nhơn Trạch 2 Thermal Power Plant (750 MW), Phú Quý Wind Power Plant (6 MW), Hủa Na Hydro-power Plant (180 MW), Dakdrinh Hydro-power Plant (125 MW) and Vũng Áng 1 Thermal Power Plant (1,200 MW).^[355]
【参考译文】在越南，家庭用气市场主要由越南石油公司控制，该公司几乎占据了国内液化石油气（LPG）市场的70%。[354] 自2011年起，该公司还运营着五座可再生能源电厂，包括Nhơn Trạch 2热电厂（750兆瓦）、Phú Quý风电厂（6兆瓦）、Hủa Na水电站（180兆瓦）、Dakdrinh水电站（125兆瓦）以及Vũng Áng 1热电厂（1,200兆瓦）。[355]

According to statistics from British Petroleum (BP), Vietnam is listed among the 52 countries that have proven crude oil reserves. In 2015 the reserve was approximately 4.4 billion barrels ranking Vietnam first place in Southeast Asia, while the proven gas reserves were about 0.6 trillion cubic metres (tcm) and ranking it third in Southeast Asia after Indonesia and Malaysia.^[356]
【参考译文】根据英国石油公司（BP）的统计数据，越南被列入拥有已证实原油储量的52个国家之一。2015年，其原油储量约为44亿桶，在东南亚地区排名第一，而已证实的天然气储量约为0.6万亿立方米（tcm），仅次于印度尼西亚和马来西亚，位居东南亚第三。[356]

5.6 电信 | Telecommunication

Main article: Telecommunications in Vietnam【主条目：越南的电信】

Telecommunications services in Vietnam are wholly provided by the Vietnam Post and Telecommunications General Corporation (now the VNPT Group) which is a state-owned company.^[357] The VNPT retained its monopoly until 1986. The telecom sector was reformed in 1995 when the Vietnamese government began to implement a competitive policy with the creation of two domestic telecommunication companies, the Military Electronic and Telecommunication Company (Viettel, which is wholly owned by the Vietnamese Ministry of Defence) and the Saigon Post and Telecommunication Company (SPT or SaigonPostel), with 18% of it owned by VNPT.^[357] VNPT’s monopoly was finally ended by the government in 2003 with the issuance of a decree.^[358] By 2012, the top three telecom operators in Vietnam were Viettel, Vinaphone and MobiFone. The remaining companies included: EVNTelecom, Vietnammobile and S-Fone.^[359] With the shift towards a more market-orientated economy, Vietnam’s telecommunications market is continuously being reformed to attract foreign investment, which includes the supply of services and the establishment of nationwide telecom infrastructure.^[360]
【参考译文】越南的电信服务完全由越南邮政电信总公司（现为VNPT集团）提供，这是一家国营公司。[357] VNPT一直保持其垄断地位直到1986年。电信行业在1995年进行了改革，当时越南政府开始实施竞争政策，创建了两家国内电信公司：军用电子电信公司（Viettel，完全由越南国防部所有）和西贡邮政电信公司（SPT或SaigonPostel），其中18%的股份由VNPT持有。[357] VNPT的垄断地位最终在2003年由政府发布的一项法令结束。[358] 到2012年，越南的三大电信运营商是Viettel、Vinaphone和MobiFone。其余的公司包括：EVNTelecom、Vietnammobile和S-Fone。[359] 随着向更加以市场为导向的经济转变，越南的电信市场不断进行改革以吸引外资，这包括服务的提供和全国电信基础设施的建立。[360]

5.7 供水和卫生设施 | Water supply and sanitation

Main article: Water supply and sanitation in Vietnam【主条目：越南供水与卫生设施】

Vietnam has 2,360 rivers with an average annual discharge of 310 billion m³. The rainy season accounts for 70% of the year’s discharge.^[361] Most of the country’s urban water supply systems have been developed without proper management within the last 10 years. Based on a 2008 survey by the Vietnam Water Supply and Sewerage Association (VWSA), existing water production capacity exceeded demand, but service coverage is still sparse. Most of the clean water supply infrastructure is not widely developed. It is only available to a small proportion of the population with about one third of 727 district towns having some form of piped water supply.^[362] There is also concern over the safety of existing water resources for urban and rural water supply systems. Most industrial factories release their untreated wastewater directly into the water sources. Where the government does not take measures to address the issue, most domestic wastewater is discharged, untreated, back into the environment and pollutes the surface water.^[362]
【参考译文】越南共有2,360条河流，年均径流量为3100亿立方米。雨季占全年径流的70%。[361] 该国大部分城市的供水系统在过去十年内没有得到妥善管理的情况下得到了开发。根据2008年越南供水与污水处理协会（VWSA）的一项调查，现有的水生产能力超过了需求，但服务覆盖范围仍然有限。大部分清洁供水基础设施尚未广泛发展，仅对一小部分人口可用，大约727个区镇中只有三分之一拥有某种形式的管道供水系统。[362] 对现有水资源的安全性也存在担忧，这些水资源供城乡供水系统使用。大多数工业工厂直接将未经处理的废水排放到水源中。政府如果不采取措施来解决这个问题，大部分生活污水会被未经处理地排放回环境中，从而污染地表水。[362]

In recent years, there have been some efforts and collaboration between local and foreign universities to develop access to safe water in the country by introducing water filtration systems. There is a growing concern among local populations over the serious public health issues associated with water contamination caused by pollution as well as the high levels of arsenic in groundwater sources.^[363] The government of Netherlands has been providing aid focusing its investments mainly on water-related sectors including water treatment projects.^{[364][365][366]} Regarding sanitation, 78% of Vietnam’s population has access to “improved” sanitation—94% of the urban population and 70% of the rural population. However, there are still about 21 million people in the country lacking access to “improved” sanitation according to a survey conducted in 2015.^[367] In 2018, the construction ministry said the country’s water supply, and drainage industry had been applying hi-tech methods and information technology (IT) to sanitation issues but faced problems like limited funding, climate change, and pollution.^[368] The health ministry has also announced that water inspection units will be established nationwide beginning in June 2019. Inspections are to be conducted without notice, since there have been many cases involving health issues caused by poor or polluted water supplies as well unhygienic conditions reported every year.^[369]
【参考译文】近年来，当地和外国大学之间进行了一些合作努力，通过引入净水系统来提高该国获得安全用水的机会。当地居民越来越关注因污染导致的水污染以及地下水中高浓度砷所带来的严重公共卫生问题。荷兰政府一直在提供援助，主要投资于与水相关的领域，包括水处理项目。[364][365][366] 关于卫生设施方面，越南78%的人口能够使用“改善”的卫生设施——城市人口中这一比例为94%，农村人口为70%。然而，根据2015年的一项调查，该国仍有约2100万人无法使用“改善”的卫生设施。[367] 2018年，建设部表示，该国的供水和排水行业已经采用高科技方法和信息技术（IT）来解决卫生问题，但仍面临资金有限、气候变化和污染等问题。[368] 卫生部也宣布，将于2019年6月开始在全国范围内设立水质检查单位。检查将不预先通知，因为每年都报告了许多由于不良或受污染的供水以及不卫生条件引起的健康问题案例。[369]

6. 人口统计 | Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Vietnam, Vietnamese people, and Ethnic groups in Vietnam
【主要条目：越南人口统计、越南人和越南民族群体】

参见：越南人口和越南民族

As of 2021, the population of Vietnam stands at approximately 97.5 million people.^[371] The population had grown significantly from the 1979 census, which showed the total population of reunified Vietnam to be 52.7 million.^[372] According to the 2019 census, the country’s population was 96,208,984.^[2] Based on the 2019 census, 65.6% of the Vietnamese population live in rural areas while only 34.4% live in urban areas. The average growth rate of the urban population has recently increased which is attributed mainly to migration and rapid urbanisation.^[2] The dominant Viet or Kinh ethnic group constitute 82,085,826 people or 85.32% of the population.^[2] Most of their population is concentrated in the country’s alluvial deltas and coastal plains. As a majority ethnic group, the Kinh possess significant political and economic influence over the country.^[370] Despite this, Vietnam is also home to various ethnic groups, of which 54 are officially recognised, including the Hmong, Dao, Tày, Thái and Nùng.^[373] Many ethnic minorities such as the Muong, who are closely related to the Kinh, dwell in the highlands which cover two-thirds of Vietnam’s territory.^[374]
【参考译文】截至2021年，越南的人口约为9750万人。[371] 人口从1979年人口普查时的统一后越南总人口5270万有了显著增长。[372] 根据2019年人口普查，该国的人口为96,208,984人。[2] 根据2019年人口普查，65.6%的越南人口居住在农村地区，而仅有34.4%的人口居住在城市地区。城市人口的平均增长率最近有所增加，这主要归因于迁移和快速的城市化进程。[2] 主要的越族或京族构成了82,085,826人，占总人口的85.32%。[2] 他们的大部分人口集中在该国的冲积三角洲和沿海平原地区。作为多数民族，京族对该国具有重要的政治和经济影响力。[370] 尽管如此，越南还是众多民族的家园，官方承认的有54个民族，包括苗族、瑶族、岱族、泰族和侬族。[373] 许多少数民族，如与京族关系密切的芒族，居住在覆盖越南三分之二领土的高地。[374]

Since the partition of Vietnam, the population of the Central Highlands was almost exclusively Degar (including more than 40 tribal groups); however, the South Vietnamese government at the time enacted a program of resettling Kinh in indigenous areas.^[375][376] The Hoa (ethnic Chinese) and Khmer Krom people are mainly lowlanders.^[370][377] Throughout Vietnam’s history, many Chinese people, largely from South China, migrated to the country as administrators, merchants and even refugees.^[378] Since the reunification in 1976, an increase of communist policies nationwide resulted in the nationalisation and confiscation of property especially from the Hoa in the south and the wealthy in cities. This led many of them to leave Vietnam.^[379][380]
【参考译文】自从越南分裂以来，中部高地的人口几乎完全是Degar人（包括40多个部落群体）；然而，当时的南越政府实施了一个重新安置京族到土著地区的计划。[375][376] 华人（Hoa，指越南华人）和高棉克罗马人主要是低地居民。[370][377] 在越南的历史上，许多中国人，主要是来自中国南部的人，迁移到该国担任行政官员、商人甚至难民。[378] 自1976年统一以来，共产主义政策在全国范围内的加强导致了财产特别是南方华人和城市富裕阶层的国有化和没收。这导致许多人离开了越南。[379][380]

6.1 城市化 | Urbanisation

See also: List of cities in Vietnam【参见：越南城市列表】

The number of people who live in urbanised areas in 2019 is 33,122,548 people (with the urbanisation rate at 34.4%).^[2] Since 1986, Vietnam’s urbanisation rates have surged rapidly after the Vietnamese government implemented the Đổi Mới economic program, changing the system into a socialist one and liberalising property rights. As a result, Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City (the two major cities in the Red River Delta and Southeast regions respectively) increased their share of the total urban population from 8.5% and 24.9% to 15.9% and 31% respectively.^[381] The Vietnamese government, through its construction ministry, forecasts the country will have a 45% urbanisation rate by 2020 although it was confirmed to only be 34.4% according to the 2019 census.^[2] Urbanisation is said to have a positive correlation with economic growth. Any country with higher urbanisation rates has a higher GDP growth rate.^[382] Furthermore, the urbanisation movement in Vietnam is mainly between the rural areas and the country’s Southeast region. Ho Chi Minh City has received a large number of migrants due mainly to better weather and economic opportunities.^[383]
【参考译文】2019年居住在城市化地区的人口为33,122,548人（城市化率为34.4%）。[2] 自1986年以来，越南政府实施了革新经济计划（Đổi Mới），将制度转变为社会主义，并自由化财产权，此后越南的城市化率迅速上升。结果，河内和胡志明市（分别是红河三角洲和东南地区的两个主要城市）的城市人口比例分别从8.5%和24.9%增加到了15.9%和31%。[381] 越南政府通过其建设部预测，该国到2020年将达到45%的城市化率，尽管根据2019年人口普查确认的实际数字仅为34.4%。[2] 城市化被认为与经济增长呈正相关。任何城市化率较高的国家都有较高的GDP增长率。[382] 此外，越南的城市化运动主要发生在农村地区和该国东南部之间。由于更好的气候和经济机会，胡志明市接收了大量的移民。[383]

A study also shows that rural-to-urban area migrants have a higher standard of living than both non-migrants in rural areas and non-migrants in urban areas. This results in changes to economic structures. In 1985, agriculture made up 37.2% of Vietnam’s GDP; in 2008, that number had declined to 18.5%.^[384] In 1985, industry made up only 26.2% of Vietnam’s GDP; by 2008, that number had increased to 43.2%. Urbanisation also helps to improve basic services which increase people’s standards of living. Access to electricity grew from 14% of total households with electricity in 1993 to above 96% in 2009.^[384] In terms of access to fresh water, data from 65 utility companies shows that only 12% of households in the area covered by them had access to the water network in 2002; by 2007, more than 70% of the population was connected. Though urbanisation has many benefits, it has some drawbacks since it creates more traffic, and air and water pollution.^[384]
【参考译文】一项研究还显示，从农村迁移到城市地区的移民比留在农村地区的非移民和城市中的非移民享有更高的生活水平。这导致了经济结构的变化。1985年，农业占越南GDP的37.2%；到2008年，这一比例下降到了18.5%。[384] 1985年，工业仅占越南GDP的26.2%；到2008年，这一比例增加到了43.2%。城市化还有助于改善基本服务，从而提高人们的生活水平。1993年，拥有电力的家庭总数占比为14%，而到2009年这一数字上升到了96%以上。[384] 在获取清洁水源方面，来自65家公用事业公司的数据显示，2002年在其覆盖区域内的家庭中，只有12%能够接入供水网络；到2007年，超过70%的人口实现了连接。尽管城市化有许多好处，但也有一些缺点，因为它带来了更多的交通、空气和水污染。[384]

Many Vietnamese use mopeds for transportation, since they are relatively cheap and easy to operate. Their large numbers have been known to cause traffic congestion and air pollution in Vietnam. In the capital city alone, the number of mopeds increased from 0.5 million in 2001 to 4.7 million in 2013.^[384] With rapid development, factories have sprung up which indirectly pollute the air and water, for example in the 2016 Vietnam marine life disaster.^[385] The government is intervening and attempting solutions to decrease air pollution by decreasing the number of motorcycles while increasing public transportation. It has introduced more regulations for waste handling. The amount of solid waste generated in urban areas of Vietnam has increased by more than 200% from 2003 to 2008. Industrial solid waste accounted for 181% of that increase. One of the government’s efforts includes attempting to promote campaigns that encourage locals to sort household waste, since waste sorting is still not practised by most of Vietnamese society.^[386]
【参考译文】许多越南人使用轻便摩托车作为交通工具，因为它们相对便宜且易于操作。大量的轻便摩托车已知会导致越南的交通拥堵和空气污染。仅在首都，轻便摩托车的数量就从2001年的50万辆增加到了2013年的470万辆。[384] 随着快速的发展，工厂纷纷涌现，间接地污染了空气和水，例如在2016年越南海洋生物灾难中。政府正在介入并尝试解决方案以减少空气污染，比如减少摩托车的数量同时增加公共交通。它引入了更多关于废物处理的法规。从2003年到2008年，越南城市地区产生的固体废物增加了200%以上。工业固体废物占这一增长的181%。政府的努力之一包括试图推广鼓励当地居民分类家庭垃圾的活动，因为在大多数越南社会中，垃圾分类仍未普及。[386]

6.2 语言 | Languages

主条目：越南语

The national language of the country is Vietnamese, a tonal Austroasiatic language (Mon–Khmer), which is spoken by the majority of the population. Vietnam’s minority groups speak a variety of languages, including: Tày, Mường, Cham, Khmer, Chinese, Nùng and Hmong. The Montagnard peoples of the Central Highlands also speak a number of distinct languages, some belonging to the Austroasiatic and others to the Malayo-Polynesian language families.^[393] In recent years, a number of sign languages have developed in the major cities.
【参考译文】该国的官方语言是越南语，这是一种声调性的澳泰语系（孟-高棉语系）语言，由大多数人口使用。越南的少数民族说各种各样的语言，包括：岱语、芒语、占语、高棉语、汉语、侬语和苗语。中部高地的蒙塔格纳德人也说几种不同的语言，有些属于澳泰语系，其他则属于马来-波利尼西亚语系。[393] 近年来，各大城市中发展出了一些手语。

京族人就是一般常称的越南人，母语为越南语。若就语言分类的角度看，越南的语言远多于54个。根据Ethnologue（Lewis 2009:537）的纪录，若不包含手语，越南境内共有105种语言。越南政府认定的54个民族分属于南亚语系、壮侗语系、苗瑶语系、南岛语系和汉藏语系。属于南亚语系的越南语被采用为全国官方语言，用于教育体制及大众媒体。约90%的少数民族人口均可不同程度地使用越南语。近年来随着少数民族语言意识的抬头，民族母语的教育权与传播权逐渐受到重视。譬如，越南之声广播电台和越南国家电视台使用一些少数民族语如苗语、泰语、高棉语、色当语、巴拿语、嘉莱语等播出节目。^[45]

越南语因为过去曾用汉字且有数量巨大的汉越词和汉语借词，于20世纪初曾被误会为汉藏语系的一员。后来经过深入研究其起源，才发现越语应该分类在南亚语系里较适当。^[45]越南语大约可分为北中南三大方言群，除了少数腔调及词汇的差异外，基本上方言之间可以互相沟通理解。目前越南是以位于北方的首都河内腔为标准。^[46]目前台湾有关越南语的学术研究与出版多数来自成功大学越南研究中心。^[47][48]

在中国统治期间，汉字被采用为正式的官方文字。稍后的藩属国期间（约10世纪起）民间发展出民族文字“字喃”；越南著名的汉喃文小说《金云翘传》（阮攸著）便大量采用了喃字。另外，16世纪末经由西欧传教士传入罗马字来书写越南语。经过不少传教士的努力之下，法国籍传教士罗历山在1651年出版第一本越南罗马字辞典《越、葡、拉》。罗历山的罗马字方案经过不同时期微幅修改后，才发展成现在越南普遍使用的正式文字。19世纪后半期至20世纪上半段，越南沦为法国的殖民地。在法国殖民统治时期，法语取代汉文及越南语而成为越南的官方语言。1945年胡志明宣布越南独立并成立“越南民主共和国”后，他并随即宣布采用越南语和越南罗马字为官方语言的政策。自此，越南语和越南罗马字取代法语、汉字而成为当今越南唯一的口语和书写语标准。^[49][50][51]

汉字在越南被使用了约二千年，知识分子使用汉字著书立说，政府文件亦使用汉字。不过在越南文学史上，古典文学通常指用字喃书写的作品，近现代文学则指用越南罗马字写的文学作品（不含法语写的殖民文学），所以跟日韩所指的汉字意思并不相同。^[51]

The French language, a legacy of colonial rule, is spoken by many educated Vietnamese as a second language, especially among those educated in the former South Vietnam, where it was a principal language in administration, education and commerce.^[394] Vietnam remains a full member of the International Organisation of the Francophonie (La Francophonie) and education has revived some interest in the language.^[395] Russian, and to a lesser extent German, Czech and Polish are known among some northern Vietnamese whose families had ties with the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War.^[396] With improved relations with Western countries and recent reforms in Vietnamese administration, English has been increasingly used as a second language and the study of English is now obligatory in most schools either alongside or in place of French.^[397][398] The popularity of Japanese, Korean, and Mandarin Chinese have also grown as the country’s ties with other East Asian nations have strengthened.^{[399][400][401]} Third-graders can choose one of seven languages (English, Russian, French, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, German) as their first foreign language.^{[402][403][404]} In Vietnam’s high school graduation examinations, students can take their foreign language exam in one of the above-mentioned languages.^[405]
【参考译文】法语作为一种殖民统治的遗产，被许多受过教育的越南人作为第二语言使用，特别是在前南越地区受过教育的人群中，那里法语曾经是行政、教育和商业的主要语言。[394] 越南仍然是国际法语组织（La Francophonie）的正式成员，教育系统中对这种语言的兴趣有所复苏。[395] 俄语，以及在较小程度上的德语、捷克语和波兰语，在一些与东欧集团有联系的家庭中的北方越南人中被知晓，这些联系是在冷战期间建立的。[396] 随着与西方国家关系的改善和越南行政管理的最新改革，英语作为第二语言的使用越来越多，并且现在在大多数学校里英语的学习要么作为必修课与法语一起，要么替代法语成为必修课。[397][398] 随着与东亚其他国家关系的加强，日语、韩语和普通话也越来越受欢迎。[399][400][401] 三年级学生可以选择七种语言（英语、俄语、法语、汉语、日语、韩语、德语）中的一种作为他们的第一门外语。[402][403][404] 在越南的高中毕业考试中，学生可以用上述提到的语言之一参加外语考试。[405]

6.3 宗教 | Religion

Main article: Religion in Vietnam / 主条目：越南宗教

Under Article 70 of the 1992 Constitution of Vietnam, all citizens enjoy freedom of belief and religion.^[406] All religions are equal before the law and each place of worship is protected under Vietnamese state law. Religious beliefs cannot be misused to undermine state law and policies.^[406][407] According to a 2007 survey 81% of Vietnamese people did not believe in a god.^[408] Based on government findings in 2009, the number of religious people increased by 932,000.^[409] The official statistics, presented by the Vietnamese government to the United Nations special rapporteur in 2014, indicate the overall number of followers of recognised religions is about 24 million of a total population of almost 90 million.^[410] According to the General Statistics Office of Vietnam in 2019, Buddhists account for 4.79% of the total population, Catholics 6.1%, Protestants 1.0%, Hoahao Buddhists 1.02%, and Caodaism followers 0.58%.^[2] Other religions includes Islam, Bahaʼís and Hinduism, representing less than 0.2% of the population.
【参考译文】根据1992年越南宪法第70条，所有公民享有信仰自由和宗教自由。[406] 所有宗教在法律面前一律平等，每个礼拜场所都受到越南国家法律的保护。宗教信仰不得被滥用以破坏国家法律和政策。[406][407] 根据2007年的一项调查，81%的越南人不相信神的存在。[408] 根据2009年的政府数据，信教人数增加了932,000人。[409] 越南政府2014年向联合国特别报告员提交的官方统计数据显示，被认可的宗教信徒总数约为2400万，在近9000万总人口中占一定比例。[410] 根据越南统计总局2019年的数据，佛教徒占总人口的4.79%，天主教徒占6.1%，新教徒占1.0%，和好佛教徒占1.02%，高台道教徒占0.58%。[2] 其他宗教包括伊斯兰教、巴哈伊信仰和印度教，代表不到0.2%的人口。

The majority of Vietnamese do not follow any organised religion, though many of them observe some form of Vietnamese folk religion. Confucianism as a system of social and ethical philosophy still has certain influences in modern Vietnam. Mahāyāna is the dominant branch of Buddhism, while Theravāda is practised mostly by the Khmer minority. About 8 to 9% of the population is Christian—made up of Roman Catholics and Protestants. Catholicism was introduced to Vietnam in the 16th century and was firmly established by Jesuits missionaries (mainly Portuguese and Italian) in the 17th centuries from nearby Portuguese Macau.^[78] French missionaries (from the Paris Foreign Missions Society) together with Spanish missionaries (from the Dominican Order of the neighbouring Spanish East Indies) actively sought converts in the 18th, 19th, and first half of the 20th century.^{[411][412][413]} A significant number of Vietnamese people, especially in the South, are also adherents of two indigenous religions of syncretic Caodaism and quasi-Buddhist Hoahaoism.^[414] Protestantism was only recently spread by American and Canadian missionaries in the 20th century;^[415] the largest Protestant denomination is the Evangelical Church of Vietnam. Around 770,000 of the country’s Protestants are members of ethnic minorities,^[415] particularly the highland Montagnards^[416] and Hmong people. Although it is one of the country’s minority religions, Protestantism is the fastest-growing religion in Vietnam, expanding at a rate of 600% in recent decades.^[415][417] Several other minority faiths exist in Vietnam, these include: Bani, Sunni and non-denominational sections of Islam which is practised primarily among the ethnic Cham minority.^[418] There are also a few Kinh adherents of Islam, other minority adherents of Baha’i, as well as Hindus among the Cham‘s.^[419][420]
【参考译文】大多数越南人并不信奉任何有组织的宗教，尽管他们中许多人遵守某种形式的越南民间宗教。儒家作为一种社会和伦理哲学体系，在现代越南仍有一定的影响。大乘佛教是主流的佛教分支，而上座部佛教主要由高棉少数民族实践。大约8到9%的人口是基督徒，包括天主教徒和新教徒。天主教在16世纪传入越南，并在17世纪由耶稣会传教士（主要是葡萄牙人和意大利人）从附近的葡萄牙澳门牢固地建立起来。[78] 法国传教士（来自巴黎外方传教会）与西班牙传教士（来自邻近的西班牙东印度公司的多明我会）在18世纪、19世纪和20世纪上半叶积极寻求信徒。[411][412][413] 大量越南人，尤其是在南部地区，信奉两种本土宗教——融合性的高台道和准佛教的和好佛教。[414] 新教直到20世纪才由美国和加拿大传教士传播开来；[415] 最大的新教派别是越南福音派教会。该国的大约770,000名新教徒是少数民族成员，[415] 特别是高地蒙塔格纳人[416] 和苗族人。尽管是少数宗教之一，新教是越南增长最快的宗教，在过去几十年里以600%的速度扩张。[415][417] 越南还存在其他一些少数民族信仰，其中包括：伊斯兰教的Bani、逊尼派和无宗派部分，主要由占族少数民族实践。[418] 也有少量京族伊斯兰教徒，其他少数民族的巴哈伊信徒，以及占族中的印度教徒。[419][420]

6.3+1 教育 | Education

Main article: Education in Vietnam / 主条目：越南教育

Vietnam has an extensive state-controlled network of schools, colleges, and universities and a growing number of privately run and partially privatised institutions. General education in Vietnam is divided into five categories: kindergarten, elementary schools, middle schools, high schools, and universities. A large number of public schools have been constructed across the country to raise the national literacy rate, which stood at 90% in 2008.^[421]
【参考译文】越南拥有一套由国家控制的学校、学院和大学网络，并且私立和部分私有化的机构数量也在增加。越南的普通教育分为五个阶段：幼儿园、小学、初中、高中和大学。为了提高国家的识字率，全国各地建立了大量的公立学校，2008年时识字率达到了90%。[421]

Most universities are located in major cities of Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City with the country’s education system continuously undergoing a series of reforms by the government. Basic education in the country is relatively free for the poor although some families may still have trouble paying tuition fees for their children without some form of public or private assistance.^[422] Regardless, Vietnam’s school enrolment is among the highest in the world.^[423][424] The number of colleges and universities increased dramatically in the 2000s from 178 in 2000 to 299 in 2005. In higher education, the government provides subsidised loans for students through the national bank, although there are deep concerns about access to the loans as well the burden on students to repay them.^[425][426]
【参考译文】大多数大学位于河内和胡志明市等主要城市，该国的教育系统一直在政府的一系列改革下持续改进。对于贫困家庭而言，该国的基础教育相对免费，尽管有些家庭可能仍需借助某种形式的公共或私人援助才能支付孩子的学费。[422] 不管怎样，越南的学校入学率是世界上最高的之一。[423][424] 在2000年代，大学和学院的数量急剧增加，从2000年的178所增加到2005年的299所。在高等教育方面，政府通过国家银行为学生提供补贴贷款，尽管人们对贷款的获取以及学生还款负担深感担忧。[425][426]

Since 1995, enrolment in higher education has grown tenfold to over 2.2 million with 84,000 lecturers and 419 institutions of higher education.^[427] A number of foreign universities operate private campuses in Vietnam, including Harvard University (United States) and the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (Australia). The government’s strong commitment to education has fostered significant growth but still need to be sustained to retain academics. In 2018, a decree on university autonomy allowing them to operate independently without ministerial control is in its final stages of approval. The government will continue investing in education especially for the poor to have access to basic education.^[428]
【参考译文】自1995年以来，高等教育的入学人数增长了十倍，超过了220万，拥有84,000名讲师和419所高等教育机构。[427] 一些外国大学在越南运营私立校区，包括哈佛大学（美国）和皇家墨尔本理工大学（澳大利亚）。政府对教育的坚定承诺促进了显著的增长，但仍需要持续投入以留住学术人才。2018年，一项关于大学自治的法令允许大学独立运作而不受部委控制，正处于最后批准阶段。政府将继续投资教育，特别是让贫困人群能够接受基础教育。[428]

6.5 卫生健康 | Health

Main article: Health in Vietnam【主条目：越南健康】

By 2015, 97% of the population had access to improved water sources.^[429] In 2016, Vietnam’s national life expectancy stood at 80.9 years for women and 71.5 for men, and the infant mortality rate was 17 per 1,000 live births.^{[430][431][432]} Since the partition, North Vietnam has established a public health system that has reached down to the hamlet level.^[433] After the national reunification in 1975, a nationwide health service was established.^[174]
【参考译文】到2015年，97%的人口能够获得改善的水源。[429] 2016年，越南的女性平均预期寿命为80.9岁，男性为71.5岁，婴儿死亡率为每千名活产婴儿中有17人死亡。[430][431][432] 自南北分裂以来，北越建立了覆盖到村一级的公共卫生系统。[433] 在1975年全国统一之后，建立了全国范围的卫生服务体系。[174]

In the late 1980s, the quality of healthcare declined to some degree as a result of budgetary constraints, a shift of responsibility to the provinces and the introduction of charges.^[301] Inadequate funding has also contributed to a shortage of nurses, midwives and hospital beds; in 2000, Vietnam had only 24.7 hospital beds per 10,000 people before declining to 23.7 in 2005 as stated in the annual report of Vietnamese Health Ministry.^[434] The controversial use of herbicides as a chemical weapon by the US military during the war left tangible, long-term impacts upon the Vietnamese people that persist in the country today.^[435][436] For instance, it led to three million Vietnamese people suffering health problems, one million birth defects caused directly by exposure to the chemical and 24% of Vietnam’s land being defoliated.^[437]
【参考译文】20世纪80年代末期，由于预算限制、责任转移至省份以及收费制度的引入，医疗保健质量在一定程度上下滑。[301] 经费不足也导致护士、助产士和医院床位短缺；2000年，越南每10,000人拥有24.7张病床，到2005年这一数字下降到23.7张，这是越南卫生部年度报告中的数据。[434] 在战争期间美军将除草剂作为化学武器使用，给越南人民留下了长期的影响，这些影响至今仍在该国存在。[435][436] 比如，这导致了300万越南人健康问题，因接触化学物质而导致的100万出生缺陷，以及24%的越南土地被除林。[437]

Since the early 2000s, Vietnam has made significant progress in combating malaria. The malaria mortality rate fell to about five per cent of its 1990s equivalent by 2005 after the country introduced improved antimalarial drugs and treatment.^[438] Tuberculosis (TB) cases, however, are on the rise. TB has become the second most infectious disease in the country after respiratory-related illness.^[439] With an intensified vaccination program, better hygiene and foreign assistance, Vietnam hopes to reduce sharply the number of TB cases and new TB infections.^[440] In 2004, government subsidies covering about 15% of health care expenses.^[441] That year, the United States announced Vietnam would be one of 15 states to receive funding as part of its global AIDS relief plan.^[442] By the following year, Vietnam had diagnosed 101,291 human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) cases, of which 16,528 progressed to acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS); 9,554 have died.^[443]
【参考译文】自21世纪初以来，越南在抗击疟疾方面取得了显著进展。到2005年，疟疾死亡率降至1990年代水平的约5%，这是在该国引入了改良的抗疟药物和治疗之后的结果。[438] 然而，肺结核病例却在增加。肺结核已经成为继呼吸系统疾病之后该国第二大传染病。[439] 通过强化疫苗接种计划、改善卫生状况和外国援助，越南希望大幅减少肺结核病例和新的感染。[440] 2004年，政府补贴约占医疗费用的15%。[441] 同年，美国宣布越南将是全球艾滋病救援计划资助的15个国家之一。[442] 到第二年，越南确诊了101,291例人类免疫缺陷病毒（HIV）病例，其中16,528例进展为获得性免疫缺陷综合征（艾滋病）；9,554人因此死亡。[443]

The actual number of HIV-positive individuals is estimated to be much higher. On average between 40 and 50 new infections are reported daily in the country. In 2007, 0.4% of the population was estimated to be infected with HIV and the figure has remained stable since 2005.^[444] More global aid is being delivered through The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria to fight the spread of the disease in the country.^[440] In September 2018, the Hanoi People’s Committee urged the citizens of the country to stop eating dog and cat meat as it can cause diseases like rabies and leptospirosis. More than 1,000 stores in the capital city of Hanoi were found to be selling both meats. The decision prompted positive comments among Vietnamese on social media, though some noted that the consumption of dog meat will remain an ingrained habit among many people.^[445]
【参考译文】实际上，HIV阳性者的数量估计要高得多。该国每天平均报告40到50例新的感染病例。2007年，估计有0.4%的人口感染了HIV，这一数字自2005年以来一直保持稳定。[444] 更多的全球援助正通过全球抗击艾滋病、结核病和疟疾基金来对抗该国疾病的传播。[440] 2018年9月，河内人民委员会敦促国民停止食用狗肉和猫肉，因为这可能会导致狂犬病和钩端螺旋体病等疾病。在首都河内发现有1,000多家商店出售这两种肉类。这一决定在社交媒体上引发了越南人的积极评论，尽管有些人指出吃狗肉的习惯在很多人中仍然根深蒂固。[445]

7. 文化 | Culture

Main article: Culture of Vietnam / 主条目：越南文化

Vietnamese culture is considered part of Sinosphere. Vietnam’s culture has developed over the centuries from indigenous ancient Đông Sơn culture with wet rice cultivation as its economic base.^[43][46] Some elements of the nation’s culture have Chinese origins, drawing on elements of Confucianism, Mahāyāna Buddhism, and Taoism in its traditional political system and philosophy.^[446][447] Vietnamese society is structured around làng (ancestral villages);^[448] all Vietnamese mark a common ancestral anniversary on the tenth day of the third lunar month.^[449][450] The influence of Chinese culture such as the Cantonese, Hakka, Hokkien, and Hainanese cultures is more evident in the north where Buddhism is strongly entwined with popular culture.^[451] Despite this, there are Chinatowns in the south, such as in Chợ Lớn, where many Chinese have intermarried with Kinh and are indistinguishable among them.^[452] In the central and southern parts of Vietnam, traces of Champa and Khmer culture are evidenced through the remains of ruins, artefacts as well within their population as the successor of the ancient Sa Huỳnh culture.^[453][454] In recent centuries, Western cultures have become popular among recent generations of Vietnamese.^[447]
【参考译文】越南文化被认为是汉文化圈的一部分。越南文化几个世纪以来从以水田耕作作为经济基础的本土古东山文化发展而来。[43][46] 该国文化的某些元素起源于中国，吸收了儒家、大乘佛教和道教的传统政治理论和哲学思想。[446][447] 越南社会围绕着“làng”（祖籍村落）构建；[448] 所有的越南人都会在农历三月十日纪念共同的祖先纪念日。[449][450] 如广东、客家、闽南和海南等中国文化的影响在北部更为明显，佛教在那里与大众文化紧密相连。[451] 尽管如此，在南部也有唐人街，比如在 Cho Lon，许多华人与京族通婚，并且在他们之中难以区分。[452] 在越南的中部和南部地区，占婆和高棉文化的痕迹通过废墟遗迹、文物以及作为古代沙黄文化的继承者在人口中得以体现。[453][454] 近几个世纪以来，西方文化在新一代越南人中变得流行。[447]

The traditional focuses of Vietnamese culture are based on humanity (nhân nghĩa) and harmony (hòa) in which family and community values are highly regarded.^[451] Vietnam reveres a number of key cultural symbols,^[455] such as the Vietnamese dragon which is derived from crocodile and snake imagery; Vietnam’s national father, Lạc Long Quân is depicted as a holy dragon.^{[449][456][457]} The lạc is a holy bird representing Vietnam’s national mother Âu Cơ. Other prominent images that are also revered are the turtle, buffalo and horse.^[458] Many Vietnamese also believe in the supernatural and spiritualism where illness can be brought on by a curse or sorcery or caused by non-observance of a religious ethic. Traditional medical practitioners, amulets and other forms of spiritual protection and religious practices may be employed to treat the ill person.^[459] In the modern era, the cultural life of Vietnam has been deeply influenced by government-controlled media and cultural programs.^[447] For many decades, foreign cultural influences, especially those of Western origin, were shunned. But since the recent reformation, Vietnam has seen a greater exposure to neighbouring Southeast Asian, East Asian as well to Western culture and media.^[460]
【参考译文】越南文化的传统重点基于人性（nhân nghĩa，即仁义）与和谐（hòa），其中家庭和社区的价值观受到高度重视。[451] 越南尊崇一些关键的文化象征，[455] 比如越南龙，它是从鳄鱼和蛇的形象演变而来的；越南的国父Lạc Long Quân被描绘成一条神圣的龙。[449][456][457] Lạc是一种神圣的鸟，代表着越南的国母 Âu Cơ。其他同样受到尊敬的显耀形象还包括龟、水牛和马。[458] 许多越南人也相信超自然力量和灵异现象，认为疾病可能是由诅咒或巫术引起，或者是因为没有遵守宗教道德规范所致。传统医学从业者、护身符和其他形式的精神保护和宗教仪式可能会被用来治疗病人。[459] 在现代社会，越南的文化生活深受政府控制的媒体和文化项目的影响。[447] 在很长一段时间内，外国文化影响，特别是西方起源的文化影响，被排斥在外。但是自从最近的改革开放以来，越南经历了更大的文化曝光，包括邻近的东南亚、东亚以及西方的文化和媒体。[460]

The main Vietnamese formal dress, the áo dài is worn for special occasions such as weddings and religious festivals. White áo dài is the required uniform for girls in many high schools across the country. Other examples of traditional Vietnamese clothing include: the áo tứ thân, a four-piece woman’s dress; the áo ngũ, a form of the thân in five-piece form, mostly worn in the north of the country; the yếm, a woman’s undergarment; the áo bà ba, rural working “pyjamas” for men and women; the áo gấm, a formal brocade tunic for government receptions; and the áo the, a variant of the áo gấm worn by grooms at weddings.^[461][462] Traditional headwear includes the standard conical nón lá, the “lampshade-like” nón quai thao, and the traditional turban, khăn vấn.^[462][463] In tourism, a number of popular cultural tourist destinations include the former Imperial City of Huế, the World Heritage Sites of Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park, Hội An and Mỹ Sơn, coastal regions such as Nha Trang, the caves of Hạ Long Bay and the Marble Mountains.^[464][465]
【参考译文】越南的主要正式服装是奥黛（áo dài），通常在婚礼和宗教节日等特殊场合穿着。白色奥黛是全国许多高中女生的校服。其他传统的越南服饰包括：四身袄（áo tứ thân），一种四件式的女装；五身袄（áo ngũ），一种五件式的四身袄变体，主要在该国北部穿着；yếm，一种女性内衣；婆巴袄（áo bà ba），男女皆可穿的乡村工作服，类似“睡衣”；锦缎袄（áo gấm），一种用于政府接待的正式织锦短外套；以及the袄（áo the），一种在婚礼上由新郎穿着的锦缎袄变体。[461][462] 传统的头饰包括标准的圆锥形斗笠（nón lá）、“灯罩状”的草编帽（nón quai thao）和传统的头巾（khăn vấn）。[462][463] 在旅游业中，一些受欢迎的文化旅游目的地包括昔日的皇城顺化、世界遗产风牙者榜国家公园、会安古城和美山遗址、如芽庄这样的沿海地区、下龙湾的洞穴以及大理石山。[464][465]

7.1 文学 | Literature

Main articles: Vietnamese literature, Vietnamese poetry, Vietnamese mythology, and Vietnamese fairy tales
【主要条目：越南文学、越南诗歌、越南神话和越南民间故事】

主条目：越南文学

Vietnamese literature has centuries-deep history and the country has a rich tradition of folk literature based on the typical six–to-eight-verse poetic form (lục bát) called ca dao which usually focuses on village ancestors and heroes.^[466] Written literature has been found dating back to the 10th century Ngô dynasty, with notable ancient authors including: Nguyễn Trãi, Hồ Xuân Hương, Nguyễn Du and Nguyễn Đình Chiểu. Some literary genres play an important role in theatrical performance, such as hát nói in ca trù.^[467] Some poetic unions have also been formed in Vietnam, such as the tao đàn. Vietnamese literature has been influenced by Western styles in recent times, with the first literary transformation movement of thơ mới emerging in 1932.^[468] Vietnamese folk literature is an intermingling of many forms. It is not only an oral tradition, but a mixing of three media: hidden (only retained in the memory of folk authors), fixed (written), and shown (performed). Folk literature usually exists in many versions, passed down orally, and has unknown authors. Myths consist of stories about supernatural beings, heroes, creator gods and reflect the viewpoint of ancient people about human life.^[469] They consist of creation stories, stories about their origins (Lạc Long Quân and Âu Cơ), culture heroes (Sơn Tinh and Thủy Tinh) which are referred to as a mountain and water spirit respectively and many other folklore tales.^[452][470]
【参考译文】越南文学有着深厚的历史渊源，该国拥有丰富的民间文学传统，基于典型的六到八行诗句形式（六八体）被称为“歌谣”（ca dao），通常聚焦于村庄的祖先和英雄。[466] 已发现的文字文学可以追溯到10世纪的吴朝，著名的古代作家包括：阮廌（Nguyễn Trãi）、霍春香（Hồ Xuân Hương）、阮攸（Nguyễn Du）和阮廷沼（Nguyễn Đình Chiểu）。一些文学形式在戏剧表演中扮演了重要角色，如在“雅乐”（ca trù）中的“说唱”（hát nói）。[467] 在越南，一些诗歌团体也应运而生，如陶丹（tao đàn）。近现代时期，越南文学受到了西方风格的影响，第一次文学变革运动“新诗”（thơ mới）于1932年出现。[468] 越南民间文学是多种形态的交融。它不仅是口头传统，而且是三种媒介的混合：隐含的（仅保存在民间作者的记忆中）、固定的（书面的）和显现的（表演的）。民间文学通常存在于多个版本中，通过口口相传来传承，并且作者未知。神话包含了关于超自然生物、英雄、创世神的故事，反映了古人对人类生活的观点。[469] 这些神话包括创世故事、关于其起源的故事（例如Lạc Long Quân和Âu Cơ），文化英雄（如山精Sơn Tinh和水精Thủy Tinh）以及其他许多民间传说故事。[452][470]

7.2 音乐 | Music

Main article: Music of Vietnam【主条目：越南的音乐】

Traditional Vietnamese music varies between the country’s northern and southern regions.^[471] Northern classical music is Vietnam’s oldest musical form and is traditionally more formal. The origins of Vietnamese classical opera (tuồng) can be traced to the Mongol invasions in the 13th century when the Vietnamese captured a Chinese opera troupe.^[472] Throughout its history, Vietnam has been the most heavily impacted by the Chinese musical tradition along with those of Japan, Korea and Mongolia.^[473] Nhã nhạc is the most popular form of imperial court music, Chèo is a form of generally satirical musical theatre, while Xẩm or hát xẩm (xẩm singing) is a type of Vietnamese folk music. Quan họ (alternate singing) is popular in the former Hà Bắc Province (which is now divided into Bắc Ninh and Bắc Giang Provinces) and across Vietnam.
【参考译文】传统的越南音乐在该国的北部和南部地区有所不同。[471] 北方古典音乐是越南最古老的音乐形式，传统上更加正式。越南古典戏曲（tuồng）的起源可以追溯到13世纪蒙古入侵时期，当时越南俘获了一个中国戏曲团。[472] 在其历史上，越南受到中国音乐传统的影响最大，其次是日本、韩国和蒙古。[473] Nhã nhạc是最流行的宫廷音乐形式，Chèo是一种通常具有讽刺意味的音乐剧形式，而Xẩm或hát xẩm（Xẩm歌唱）是一种越南民乐类型。Quan họ（对唱）在原河北省（现分为北宁省和北江省）以及整个越南都很流行。

Another form of music called Hát chầu văn or hát văn is used to invoke spirits during ceremonies. Nhạc dân tộc cải biên is a modern form of Vietnamese folk music which arose in the 1950s, while ca trù (also known as hát ả đào) is a popular folk music. Hò can be thought of as the southern style of Quan họ. There is a range of traditional instruments, including the đàn bầu (a monochord zither), the đàn gáo (a two-stringed fiddle with coconut body), and the đàn nguyệt (a two-stringed fretted moon lute). In recent times, there have been some efforts at mixing Vietnamese traditional music—especially folk music—with modern music to revive and promote national music in the modern context and educate the younger generations about Vietnam’s traditional musical instruments and singing styles.^[474] Bolero music has gained popularity in the country since the 1930s, albeit with a different style—a combination of traditional Vietnamese music with Western elements.^[475] In the 21st century, the modern Vietnamese pop music industry known as V-pop incorporates elements of many popular genres worldwide, such as electronic, dance and R&B.^[476][477]
【参考译文】另一种称为Hát chầu văn或hát văn的音乐形式在仪式中用于召唤灵魂。Nhạc dân tộc cải biên是一种现代的越南民乐形式，兴起于20世纪50年代，而ca trù（也称为hát ả đào）是一种流行的民乐。Hò可以被认为是Quan họ的南方风格。传统乐器种类繁多，包括đàn bầu（单弦筝）、đàn gáo（椰壳二弦琴）和đàn nguyệt（两弦月琴）。近年来，有人尝试将越南传统音乐，尤其是民乐，与现代音乐结合起来，以在现代背景下复兴和推广民族音乐，并教育年轻一代了解越南的传统乐器和歌唱风格。[474] 自20世纪30年代以来，Bolero音乐在越南获得了人气，尽管是以一种不同的风格呈现——结合了传统越南音乐与西方元素。[475] 在21世纪，现代越南流行音乐产业称为V-pop，融入了世界各地许多流行音乐流派的元素，如电子音乐、舞蹈音乐和R&B。[476][477]

7.3 媒体 | Media

Main article: Media of Vietnam【主条目：越南的媒体】

主条目：越南电视和大众媒体

越南广播事业始于1945年。当年8月，越南军队在河内郊区缴获法国无线电发射机，以此成立越南之声广播电台，用有声无线电和摩尔斯电码传播秘密和公开信息，同时承担国家通讯社的任务。1950年，越南通讯社分出成立独立机构。1976年全国统一后，同越南南方解放通讯社合并。80年代以来，广播事业取得较快的发展。对外广播语种有汉语、英语、法语、俄语、西班牙语、日语、泰语、老挝语、高棉语、印尼语等。全国各省、市设有各地地方电台，每天累计播音时间约300小时。近几年，越南之声电台大量采用新技术，开发新频道，并且开始了互联网广播，其播出时数也大幅度增加。

始于1970年^[52]的国营机构越南国家电视台（VTV）是越南最主要的电视媒体，设有9条免费电视频道，旗下的越南影视制作中心（VFC）是越南语电视连续剧制作的主要部门之一。2020年12月28日，越南已正式停止在全国范围内提供模拟电视信号覆盖，实现全国地面电视广播数字化^[53]。

Vietnam’s media sector is regulated by the government under the 2004 Law on Publication.^[478] It is generally perceived that the country’s media sector is controlled by the government and follows the official communist party line, though some newspapers are relatively outspoken.^[479][480] The Voice of Vietnam (VOV) is the official state-run national radio broadcasting service, broadcasting internationally via shortwave using rented transmitters in other countries and providing broadcasts from its website, while Vietnam Television (VTV) is the national television broadcasting company. Since 1997, Vietnam has regulated public internet access extensively using both legal and technical means. The resulting lockdown is widely referred to as the “Bamboo Firewall“.^[481] The collaborative project OpenNet Initiative classifies Vietnam’s level of online political censorship to be “pervasive”,^[482] while Reporters Without Borders (RWB) considers Vietnam to be one of 15 global “internet enemies”.^[483] Though the government of Vietnam maintains that such censorship is necessary to safeguard the country against obscene or sexually explicit content, many political and religious websites that are deemed to be undermining state authority are also blocked.^[484]
【参考译文】越南的媒体行业受政府 2004 年《出版法》监管。[478] 人们普遍认为，该国的媒体行业由政府控制，遵循官方的共产党路线，尽管有些报纸相对直言不讳。[479][480] 越南之声 (VOV) 是官方的国家广播服务，使用在其他国家租用的发射机通过短波向国际广播，并通过其网站提供广播，而越南电视台 (VTV) 是国家电视广播公司。自 1997 年以来，越南一直使用法律和技术手段广泛监管公共互联网接入。由此产生的封锁被广泛称为“竹防火墙”。[481] 合作项目开放网络倡议将越南的网络政治审查程度归类为“普遍性”，[482] 而无国界记者组织 (RWB) 认为越南是 15 个全球“互联网敌人”之一。[483]尽管越南政府坚称这种审查制度对于保护国家免受淫秽或露骨色情内容的侵害是必要的，但许多被认为破坏国家权威的政治和宗教网站也被封锁。[484]

7.4 饮食 | Cuisine

Main article: Vietnamese cuisine / 主条目：越南饮食

Traditionally, Vietnamese cuisine is based around five fundamental taste “elements” (Vietnamese: ngũ vị): spicy (metal), sour (wood), salty (water), bitter (fire) and sweet (earth).^[485] Common ingredients include fish sauce, shrimp paste, soy sauce, rice, fresh herbs, fruits and vegetables. Vietnamese recipes use: lemongrass, ginger, mint, Vietnamese mint, long coriander, Saigon cinnamon, bird’s eye chilli, lime and basil leaves.^[486] Traditional Vietnamese cooking is known for its fresh ingredients, minimal use of oil and reliance on herbs and vegetables; it is considered one of the healthiest cuisines worldwide.^[487] The use of meats such as pork, beef and chicken was relatively limited in the past. Instead freshwater fish, crustaceans (particularly crabs), and molluscs became widely used. Fish sauce, soy sauce, prawn sauce and limes are among the main flavouring ingredients.
【参考译文】传统上，越南料理基于五种基本口味“五行”（越南语：ngũ vị）：辛辣（金）、酸（木）、咸（水）、苦（火）和甜（土）。常见的食材包括鱼露、虾酱、酱油、大米、新鲜草药、水果和蔬菜。越南菜常用：柠檬草、生姜、薄荷、越南薄荷、长香菜、西贡肉桂、指天椒、青柠和罗勒叶。传统的越南烹饪以其新鲜的食材、少量用油以及对草药和蔬菜的依赖而著称；它被认为是世界上最健康的饮食之一。在过去，猪肉、牛肉和鸡肉等肉类的使用相对有限。相反，淡水鱼、甲壳类动物（尤其是螃蟹）和软体动物被广泛使用。鱼露、酱油、虾酱和青柠是主要的调味品。

Vietnam has a strong street food culture, with 40 popular dishes commonly found throughout the country.^[488] Many notable Vietnamese dishes such as gỏi cuốn (salad roll), bánh cuốn (rice noodle roll), bún riêu (rice vermicelli soup) and phở noodles originated in the north and were introduced to central and southern Vietnam by northern migrants.^[489][490] Local foods in the north are often less spicy than southern dishes, as the colder northern climate limits the production and availability of spices.^[491] Black pepper is frequently used in place of chillis to produce spicy flavours. Vietnamese drinks in the south also are usually served cold with ice cubes, especially during the annual hot seasons; in contrast, in the north hot drinks are more preferable in a colder climate. Some examples of basic Vietnamese drinks include cà phê đá (Vietnamese iced coffee), cà phê trứng (egg coffee), chanh muối (salted pickled lime juice), cơm rượu (glutinous rice wine), nước mía (sugarcane juice) and trà sen (Vietnamese lotus tea).^[492]
【参考译文】越南有着强烈的街头食品文化，全国范围内可以找到40种流行的菜肴。许多著名的越南菜肴如gỏi cuốn（沙拉卷）、bánh cuốn（米粉卷）、bún riêu（米粉汤）和phở面条起源于北方，并由北方移民引入到中部和南部越南。北方的食物通常不像南方那样辛辣，因为较冷的北方气候限制了香料的生产和供应。黑胡椒经常被用来代替辣椒以产生辣味。在南方，越南饮料通常加冰块冷饮，尤其是在每年的炎热季节；相比之下，在北方，热饮更受欢迎，特别是在寒冷的气候中。一些基本的越南饮品包括cà phê đá（越南冰咖啡）、cà phê trứng（鸡蛋咖啡）、chanh muối（腌制青柠汁）、cơm rượu（糯米酒）、nước mía（甘蔗汁）和trà sen（越南莲花茶）。

• 越式法包
• 羊肉火锅
• 越南咖啡
• 越南粉
• 越式米粉（Hủ tiếu）
• 越南河粉
• 檬粉
• 越南春卷
• 炸春卷
• 越南海鲜火锅
• 越式早餐
• 顺化牛肉粉
• 广南米粉
• 会安高楼粉
• 鸡肉炉
• 清蒸田螺
• 炸蝎子

7.5 节假日 | Holidays and festivals

Main articles: Public holidays in Vietnam and List of traditional festivals in Vietnam
【主要文章：“越南公共假日”和“越南传统节日列表”】

主条目：越南节日

The country has eleven national recognised holidays. These include: New Year’s Day on 1 January; Vietnamese New Year (Tết Nguyên Đán) from the last day of the last lunar month to fifth day of the first lunar month; Hùng Kings’ Festival on the 10th day of the third lunar month; Reunification Day on 30 April; International Workers’ Day on 1 May; and National Day on 2 September.^{[493][494][495]} During Tết, many Vietnamese from the major cities will return to their villages for family reunions and to pray for dead ancestors.^[496][497] Older people will usually give the young a lì xì (red envelope) while special holiday food, such as bánh chưng (rice cake) in a square shape together with variety of dried fruits, are presented in the house for visitors.^[498] Many other festivals are celebrated throughout the seasons, including the Tết Nguyên Tiêu, Tết Trung Thu and various temple and nature festivals.^[499] In the highlands, Elephant Race Festivals are held annually during the spring; riders will ride their elephants for about 1.6 km (0.99 mi) and the winning elephant will be given sugarcane.^[500] Traditional Vietnamese weddings remain widely popular.^[501]
【参考译文】该国有十一个国家承认的公共假日。这些包括：1月1日的新年；从农历最后一个月的最后一天到第一个月的第五天的越南新年（Tết Nguyên Đán）；农历三月十日的雄王节；4月30日的统一日；5月1日的国际劳动节；以及9月2日的国庆日。在春节期间，许多来自主要城市的越南人会返回家乡与家人团聚并祭拜祖先。老年人通常会给年轻人发红包（lì xì），同时家中还会准备特别的节日食物，比如方形的 bánh chưng（粽子）以及各种干果来招待访客。整个季节中还有许多其他节日被庆祝，包括元宵节（Tết Nguyên Tiêu）、中秋节（Tết Trung Thu）以及各种庙会和自然节日。在高地地区，每年春天都会举行大象赛跑节；骑手们将骑行大约1.6公里（0.99英里），获胜的大象将得到甘蔗作为奖励。传统的越南婚礼仍然广受欢迎。

7.6 体育运动 | Sports

Main articles: Sport in Vietnam and List of Vietnamese traditional games
【主要条目：越南体育运动和越南传统游戏列表】

The Vovinam, Kim Kê and Võ Bình Định are widespread in Vietnam,^[502][503] while football is the country’s most popular sport.^[504] Its national team won the ASEAN Football Championship twice in 2008 and 2018 and reached the 2007 AFC Asian Cup, quarter-finals of 2019 AFC Asian Cup,^{[505][506][507]} its junior team of under-23 became the runners-up of 2018 AFC U-23 Championship and reached fourth place in 2018 Asian Games, while the under-20 managed to qualify the 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup for the first time in their football history. And the under-17 achieved the fourth place per 10 Teams of the 2000 AFC U-16 Championship.^[508][509] The women’s national football team had first appearance at the FIFA Women’s World Cup in 2023, became the first 11-a-side national football team to participate in a World Cup tournament, and also traditionally dominates the Southeast Asian Games, along with its chief rival, Thailand.
【参考译文】越南广泛流传着武维南、金凯和武平定等流派[502][503]，而足球是该国最受欢迎的运动。[504] 越南国家队在 2008 年和 2018 年两次夺得东盟足球锦标赛冠军，并进入了 2007 年亚足联亚洲杯和 2019 年亚足联亚洲杯四分之一决赛[505][506][507]，其 23 岁以下青年队成为 2018 年亚足联 U-23 锦标赛亚军，并在 2018 年亚运会中获得第四名，而 20 岁以下国家队历史上首次晋级 2017 年国际足联 U-20 世界杯。17 岁以下国家队在 2000 年亚足联 U-16 锦标赛中每 10 支球队中获得第四名。[508][509]越南女子国家足球队于 2023 年首次亮相国际足联女足世界杯，成为第一支参加世界杯比赛的 11 人制国家足球队，并且与其主要对手泰国队一起在东南亚运动会上占据主导地位。

Other Western sports such as badminton, tennis, volleyball, ping-pong and chess are also widely popular. Vietnam has participated in the Summer Olympic Games since 1952. After the partition of the country in 1954, only South Vietnam competed in the games, sending athletes to the 1956 and 1972 Olympics. Since the reunification of Vietnam in 1976, it has competed as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, attending every Summer Olympics from 1988 onwards. The present Vietnam Olympic Committee was formed in 1976 and recognised by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1979.^[510] Vietnam has never participated in the Winter Olympic Games. In 2016, Vietnam won their first gold medal at the Olympics.^[511] Basketball has become an increasingly popular sport in Vietnam, especially in Ho Chi Minh City, Hanoi and Sóc Trăng.^[512]
【参考译文】羽毛球、网球、排球、乒乓球和国际象棋等其他西方运动也广受欢迎。越南自 1952 年以来一直参加夏季奥运会。1954 年国家分治后，只有南越参加了比赛，并派运动员参加了 1956 年和 1972 年奥运会。自 1976 年越南统一以来，它一直以越南社会主义共和国的身份参赛，并从 1988 年开始参加每届夏季奥运会。现任越南奥林匹克委员会成立于 1976 年，并于 1979 年获得国际奥林匹克委员会 (IOC) 的承认。[510]越南从未参加过冬季奥运会。 2016 年，越南在奥运会上赢得了首枚金牌。[511] 篮球已经成为越南越来越受欢迎的运动，尤其是在胡志明市、河内和朔庄。[512]

• 越武道全名：武越南，越武道 Võ Việt Nam – Việt Võ Đạo
• 化拳道Hoa Quyền Đạo
• 观气道Quan Khi Đạo
• 越太极Việt tại chỉ

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