库尔德人 / Kurds -（全文）中英文维基百科词条融合

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0. 概述

辽观注：此标题是我们在搬运、整合过程中添加的。

0.1 文字说明

辽观注：此标题是我们在搬运、整合过程中添加的。

库尔德人（库尔德语：کورد‎，罗马化：Kurd）是一个生活于西亚的伊朗语游牧民族，为西南亚库尔德斯坦地区的基本居民。主要分布在土耳其、叙利亚、伊拉克、伊朗四国境内，有少数分布在阿塞拜疆和亚美尼亚、欧俄南部、以色列等地，在中东地区是人口仅次于阿拉伯、土耳其和波斯的第四大民族，同时是全世界没有国家的民族中人口最多的。

There are exclaves of Kurds in Central Anatolia, Khorasan, and the Caucasus, as well as significant Kurdish diaspora communities in the cities of western Turkey (in particular Istanbul) and Western Europe (primarily in Germany). The Kurdish population is estimated to be between 30 and 45 million.^[2][38]
【参考译文】库尔德人在中安纳托利亚、呼罗珊和高加索地区也有飞地，在土耳其西部（尤其是伊斯坦布尔）和西欧（主要是德国）的城市中也有大量库尔德散居社群。库尔德人口估计在3000万至4500万之间。[2][38]

Kurds speak the Kurdish languages and the Zaza–Gorani languages, which belong to the Western Iranian branch of the Iranian languages.^[39][40]
【参考译文】库尔德人使用库尔德语和扎扎-戈兰尼语，这两种语言都属于伊朗语族西伊朗语支。[39][40]

库尔德人是中东地区现存最古老的民族，两千多年来一直都在被称为库尔德斯坦的山区活动，过去都过着游牧或者雇佣兵的生活，后来不断向周边地区扩散，屡屡遭受土耳其、叙利亚、伊拉克等国的压迫并舆其激烈冲突，近年来库尔德人已有独立建国的声浪，库尔德工人党成员还被西方国家列为恐怖份子。

Kurds do not comprise a majority in any country, making them a stateless people.^[41] After World War I and the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, the victorious Western allies made provision for a Kurdish state in the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres. However, that treaty was not ratified. When the Treaty of Lausanne set the boundaries of modern Turkey three years later, no such provision was made, leaving Kurds with minority status in all of the new countries of Turkey, Iraq, and Syria.^[42] Recent history of the Kurds includes numerous genocides and rebellions, along with ongoing armed conflicts in Turkish, Iranian, Syrian, and Iraqi Kurdistan. Kurds in Iraq and Syria have autonomous regions, while Kurdish movements continue to pursue greater cultural rights, autonomy, and independence throughout Kurdistan^{[when defined as?]}.
【参考译文】库尔德人在任何国家都不占多数，因此他们成为了一个无国籍民族。[41]第一次世界大战后，奥斯曼帝国战败，胜利的西方盟军在1920年的《色佛尔条约》中为库尔德国家做出了规定。然而，该条约并未获得批准。三年后，《洛桑条约》划定了现代土耳其的边界，却没有做出类似的规定，导致库尔德人在土耳其、伊拉克和叙利亚这三个新成立的国家中都处于少数民族地位。[42]库尔德人的近代史包括多起种族灭绝和叛乱事件，以及土耳其、伊朗、叙利亚和伊拉克库尔德斯坦地区持续的武装冲突。伊拉克和叙利亚的库尔德人拥有自治区，而库尔德运动则继续在整个库尔德斯坦（如果定义为……）争取更大的文化权利、自治和独立。

在哈菲兹·阿萨德治下的叙利亚，库尔德民族服饰、节日与库尔德语出版物遭到了全面禁止；而土耳其亦数次血腥镇压了库尔德起义。1991年之前，“库尔德”一词本身即是土耳其国内的禁忌，库尔德人只能以“山地土耳其人”自称。在伊拉克复兴党政权治下，因萨达姆的“阿拉伯化”政策，对伊拉克库尔德人的迫害达到了高潮，许多库尔德人被驱逐到伊朗，或直接被杀害。^[9]

大部分库尔德人都是伊斯兰教逊尼派信徒，其中多数奉行沙斐仪教法学派（盛行苏菲教团，与周边奉行哈乃斐学派的阿拉伯和土耳其人不同），少数为什叶派穆斯林（含阿拉维派和十二伊玛目派）。还有部分库尔德人信奉雅兹迪教派、琐罗亚斯德教等其他宗教。

0.2 概况表格

辽观注：此标题是我们在搬运、整合过程中添加的。

Total population【总人口】
30–40 million[1] (The World Factbook, 2015 estimate) 【3000万至4000万[1]（据《世界概况》2015年估算）】 36.4–45.6 million[2] (Kurdish Institute of Paris, 2017 estimate) 【3640万至4560万[2]（据巴黎库尔德研究所2017年估算）】
Regions with significant populations【人口众多的地区】
Turkey【土耳其】	est. 14.3–20 million[1][2] 【据估计为1430万至2000万[1][2]】
Iran【伊朗】	est. 8.2–12 million[1][2] 【据估计为820万至1200万[1][2]】
Iraq【伊拉克】	est. 5.6–8.5 million[1][2] 【据估计为560万至850万[1][2]】
Syria【叙利亚】	est. 2–3.6 million[1][2] 【据估计为200万至360万[1][2]】
Germany【德国】	1.2–1.5 million[3][4] 【120万至150万[3][4]】
Azerbaijan【阿塞拜疆】	150,000–180,000[5][6] 【15万至18万[5][6]】
France【法国】	150,000[7] 【15万[7]】
Sweden【瑞典】	100,000+[8][9][10][11] 【10万以上[8][9][10][11]】
Netherlands【荷兰】	100,000[12] 【10万[12]】
Russia【俄罗斯】	63,818[13]
Belgium【比利时】	50,000[14]
United Kingdom【英国】	49,841[15][16][17]
Kazakhstan【哈萨克斯坦】	47,938[18]
Armenia【亚美尼亚】	37,470[19]
Switzerland【瑞士】	35,000[20]
Denmark【丹麦】	30,000[21]
Jordan【约旦】	30,000[22]
Austria【奥地利】	23,000[23]
Greece【希腊】	22,000[24]
United States【美国】	20,591–40,000[25]
Canada【加拿大】	16,315[26]
Finland【芬兰】	15,850[27]
Georgia (country)【格鲁吉亚】	13,861[28]
Kyrgyzstan【吉尔吉斯斯坦】	13,200[29]
Australia【澳大利亚】	10,171[30]
Languages【语言】
Majority:[31] Kurdish (Kurmanji·Sorani·Southern Kurdish·Laki) 【多数：库尔德语（分为库尔德曼吉语、索拉尼语、南部库尔德语、拉基语）】 Minority:[32] Zaza·Gorani·others 【少数：扎扎语、戈兰语、其他语言】
Religion【宗教】
Predominantly:[33] Islam[See Kurdish Muslims] (Sunni Islam·Shia Islam·Kurdish Alevism) 【主要信仰：[33] 伊斯兰教[参见库尔德穆斯林]（逊尼派伊斯兰教·什叶派伊斯兰教·库尔德阿列维派）】 Significant minority:[34][35] Yazidism·Yarsanism·Zoroastrianism·Christianity[See Kurdish Christians] 【重要少数信仰：[34][35] 亚兹迪教·雅尔桑教·祆教·基督教[参见库尔德基督徒]】
Related ethnic groups【相关的族群】
Other Iranic peoples【其他伊朗语民族】

1. 词源 | Etymology

Main article: Name of the Kurds【主条目：库尔德人的名称】

The exact origins of the name Kurd are unclear.^[43] The underlying toponym is recorded in Assyrian as Qardu and in Middle Bronze Age Sumerian as Kar-da.^[44] Assyrian Qardu refers to an area in the upper Tigris basin, and it is presumably reflected in corrupted form in Classical Arabic Ǧūdī (جودي), re-adopted in Kurdish as Cûdî.^[45] The name would be continued as the first element in the toponym Corduene, mentioned by Xenophon as the tribe who opposed the retreat of the Ten Thousand through the mountains north of Mesopotamia in the 4th century BC.
【参考译文】“库尔德”这一名称的确切起源尚不清楚。[43]其潜在的地名在亚述文中记录为Qardu，在中青铜时代的苏美尔文中记录为Kar-da。[44]亚述文中的Qardu指的是底格里斯河上游流域的一个地区，它在古典阿拉伯文中可能以讹传的形式反映为Ǧūdī（جودي），在库尔德语中重新采用为Cûdî。[45]该名称继续作为地名Corduene的第一个元素出现，色诺芬提到，公元前4世纪，该部落反对一万人在美索不达米亚以北的山地撤退。

There are, however, dissenting views, which do not derive the name of the Kurds from Qardu and Corduene but opt for derivation from Cyrtii (Cyrtaei) instead.^[46]
【参考译文】然而，也有不同的观点，这些观点并没有将库尔德人的名称追溯到Qardu和Corduene，而是选择了从Cyrtii（Cyrtaei）进行推导。[46]

Regardless of its possible roots in ancient toponymy, the ethnonym Kurd might be derived from a term kwrt- used in Middle Persian as a common noun to refer to ‘nomads‘ or ‘tent-dwellers’, which could be applied as an attribute to any Iranian group with such a lifestyle.^[47]
【参考译文】无论其可能源于古代地名，民族名称“库尔德”可能源自中古波斯语中使用的术语kwrt-，该术语是一个普通名词，指的是“游牧民”或“帐篷居民”，这可能作为属性适用于具有这种生活方式的任何伊朗群体。[47]

The term gained the characteristic of an ethnonym following the Muslim conquest of Persia, as it was adopted into Arabic and gradually became associated with an amalgamation of Iranian and Iranianized tribes and groups in the region.^[48][49]
【参考译文】在穆斯林征服波斯之后，这一术语获得了民族名称的特征，因为它被纳入阿拉伯语，并逐渐与该地区伊朗和伊朗化部落及群体的融合联系在一起。[48][49]

Sharafkhan Bidlisi in the 16th century states that there are four division of Kurds: Kurmanj, Lur, Kalhor, and Guran, each of which speak a different dialect or language variation. Paul (2008) notes that the 16th-century usage of the term Kurd as recorded by Bidlisi, regardless of linguistic grouping, might still reflect an incipient Northwestern Iranian “Kurdish” ethnic identity uniting the Kurmanj, Kalhur, and Guran.^[50]
【参考译文】16世纪的沙拉克汗·比德利西指出，库尔德人分为四个分支：库尔德曼吉人、卢尔人、卡尔霍尔人和古兰人，他们各自说不同的方言或语言变体。保罗（2008年）指出，根据比德利西的记录，16世纪使用的“库尔德”一词，无论语言分组如何，都可能仍然反映了西北伊朗新兴的“库尔德”民族身份，将库尔德曼吉人、卡尔霍尔人和古兰人联合在一起。[50]

2. 语言 | Language

Main article: Kurdish languages【主条目：库尔德诸语言】

Kurdish (Kurdish: Kurdî or کوردی) is a collection of related dialects spoken by the Kurds.^[50] It is mainly spoken in those parts of Iran, Iraq, Syria and Turkey which comprise Kurdistan.^[51] Kurdish holds official status in Iraq as a national language alongside Arabic, is recognized in Iran as a regional language, and in Armenia as a minority language. The Kurds are recognized as a people with a distinct language by Arab geographers such as Al-Masudi since the 10th century.^[52]
【参考译文】库尔德语（库尔德语：Kurdî 或 کوردی）是库尔德人所说的一系列相关方言的总称。[50]它主要在伊朗、伊拉克、叙利亚和土耳其的库尔德斯坦地区使用。[51]在伊拉克，库尔德语与阿拉伯语同为官方语言，在伊朗被承认为地区语言，在亚美尼亚被承认为少数民族语言。自10世纪以来，阿拉伯地理学家如阿尔·马苏迪就将库尔德人视为拥有独特语言的民族。[52]

库尔德语有两种书写方式：在伊拉克和伊朗主要用阿拉伯字母书写，在土耳其和叙利亚主要用拉丁字母。两地原本语言相同，而仅是两种文字书写方式不同；但如今可能因为长久的分隔，两种语言在用词方面已开始产生显著区分。

Many Kurds are either bilingual or multilingual, speaking the language of their respective nation of origin, such as Arabic, Persian, and Turkish as a second language alongside their native Kurdish, while those in diaspora communities often speak three or more languages. Turkified and Arabised Kurds often speak little or no Kurdish.
【参考译文】许多库尔德人要么会说双语，要么会说多种语言，他们除了会说母语库尔德语外，还会说各自原属国家的语言，如阿拉伯语、波斯语和土耳其语作为第二语言，而散居国外的库尔德人往往会说三种或更多种语言。土耳其化和阿拉伯化的库尔德人往往很少说或根本不说库尔德语。

According to Mackenzie, there are few linguistic features that all Kurdish dialects have in common and that are not at the same time found in other Iranian languages.^[53]
【参考译文】据麦肯齐（Mackenzie）所述，库尔德语的所有方言很少有共同的语言特征，而这些特征同时也不见于其他伊朗语言。[53]

The Kurdish dialects according to Mackenzie are classified as:^[54]
【参考译文】根据麦肯齐的分类，库尔德方言分为：[54]

• Northern group (the Kurmanji dialect group)
  【参考译文】北部方言组（库尔德曼吉方言组）
• Central group (part of the Sorani dialect group)
  【参考译文】中部方言组（索拉尼方言组的一部分）
• Southern group (part of the Xwarin dialect group) including Laki
  【参考译文】南部方言组（哈拉尼方言组的一部分），包括拉基语

The Zaza and Gorani are ethnic Kurds,^[55] but the Zaza–Gorani languages are not classified as Kurdish.^[56]
【参考译文】扎扎人和戈兰人是库尔德族的民族，[55]但扎扎-戈兰语并不被归类为库尔德语。[56]

3. 人口 | Population

Main article: Kurdish population【主条目：库尔德的人口】

The number of Kurds living in Southwest Asia is estimated at between 30 and 45 million, with another one or two million living in the Kurdish diaspora. Kurds comprise anywhere from 18 to 25% of the population in Turkey,^[1][57] 15 to 20% in Iraq;^[1] 10% in Iran;^[1] and 9% in Syria.^[1][58] Kurds form regional majorities in all four of these countries, viz. in Turkish Kurdistan, Iraqi Kurdistan, Iranian Kurdistan and Syrian Kurdistan. The Kurds are the fourth-largest ethnic group in West Asia after Arabs, Persians, and Turks.
【参考译文】据估计，生活在西南亚的库尔德人数量在3000万至4500万之间，另有100万至200万库尔德人生活在库尔德人侨居地。在土耳其，[1][57]库尔德人占总人口的18%至25%；在伊拉克，[1]占15%至20%；在伊朗，[1]占10%；在叙利亚，[1][58]占9%。库尔德人是土耳其库尔德斯坦、伊拉克库尔德斯坦、伊朗库尔德斯坦和叙利亚库尔德斯坦这四个国家/地区的区域主体民族。库尔德人是西亚继阿拉伯人、波斯人和土耳其人之后的第四大民族。

The total number of Kurds in 1991 was placed at 22.5 million, with 48% of this number living in Turkey, 24% in Iran, 18% in Iraq, and 4% in Syria.^[59]
【参考译文】1991年，库尔德人的总数为2250万，其中48%生活在土耳其，24%生活在伊朗，18%生活在伊拉克，4%生活在叙利亚。[59]

Recent emigration accounts for a population of close to 1.5 million in Western countries, about half of them in Germany.
【参考译文】最近的移民导致西方国家库尔德人口接近150万，其中约有一半生活在德国。

A special case are the Kurdish populations in the Transcaucasus and Central Asia, displaced there mostly in the time of the Russian Empire, who underwent independent developments for more than a century and have developed an ethnic identity in their own right.^[60] This groups’ population was estimated at close to 0.4 million in 1990.^[61]
【参考译文】一个特殊情况是高加索和中亚的库尔德人口，他们大多在俄罗斯帝国时期被迁移到那里，一个多世纪以来经历了独立发展，并形成了自己独特的民族身份。[60]1990年，该群体的人口估计接近40万。[61]

4. 宗教 | Religion

Main article: Religion in Kurdistan【主条目：库尔德斯坦的宗教】

4.1 伊斯兰教 | Islam

Most Kurds are Sunni Muslims who adhere to the Shafiʽi school, while a significant minority adhere to the Hanafi school^[62] and also Alevism. Moreover, many Shafi’i Kurds adhere to either one of the two Sufi orders Naqshbandi and Qadiriyya.^[63]
【参考译文】大多数库尔德人是信奉沙斐仪学派的逊尼派穆斯林，同时也有相当数量的库尔德人信奉哈乃斐学派，[62]以及阿列维派。此外，许多沙斐仪学派的库尔德人还信奉苏菲派的纳克什班迪耶教团和卡迪里耶教团中的某一个。[63]

Beside Sunni Islam, Alevism and Shia Islam also have millions of Kurdish followers.^[64]
【参考译文】除了逊尼派伊斯兰教外，阿列维派和什叶派伊斯兰教也拥有数百万库尔德信徒。[64]

4.2 雅兹迪教 | Yazidism

Main articles: Yazidis and Yazidism【主条目：亚兹迪人和亚兹迪教】

Yazidism is a monotheistic ethnic religion with roots in a western branch of an Iranic pre-Zoroastrian religion.^{[65][66][67][68]} It is based on the belief of one God who created the world and entrusted it into the care of seven Holy Beings.^[69][70] The leader of this heptad is Tawûsê Melek, who is symbolized with a peacock.^[69][71] Its adherents number from 700,000 to 1 million worldwide^[72] and are indigenous to the Kurdish regions of Iraq, Syria and Turkey, with some significant, more recent communities in Russia, Georgia and Armenia established by refugees fleeing persecution by Muslims in Ottoman Empire.^[70] Yazidism shares with Kurdish Alevism and Yarsanism many similar qualities that date back to the pre-Islamic era.^[73][74][75]
【参考译文】亚兹迪教是一种单神论的民族宗教，其根源可追溯至伊朗语系琐罗亚斯德教之前的宗教的一个西方分支。[65][66][67][68]它基于信仰唯一的神，这位神创造了世界，并将其托付给七位神圣存在来守护。[69][70]这七位神圣存在的领袖是塔乌斯·梅莱克，其象征物是孔雀。[69][71]全世界约有70万至100万信徒，[72]他们原本是伊拉克、叙利亚和土耳其库尔德地区的原住民，而一些较新的、规模较大的社群则是由逃离奥斯曼帝国穆斯林迫害的难民在俄罗斯、格鲁吉亚和亚美尼亚等地建立的。[70]亚兹迪教与库尔德的阿列维派和雅尔桑派有许多相似之处，这些相似之处可追溯到伊斯兰时代之前。[73][74][75]

4.3 雅尔桑教 | Yarsanism

Main article: Yarsanism【主条目：雅尔桑教】

Yarsanism (also known as Ahl-I-Haqq, Ahl-e-Hagh or Kakai) is also one of the religions that are associated with Kurdistan.
【参考译文】雅尔桑教（也被称为阿赫勒·哈克教、阿赫勒·哈格教或卡凯教）也是与库尔德斯坦相关的宗教之一。

Although most of the sacred Yarsan texts are in the Gorani and all of the Yarsan holy places are located in Kurdistan, followers of this religion are also found in other regions. For example, while there are more than 300,000 Yarsani in Iraqi Kurdistan, there are more than 2 million Yarsani in Iran.^[76] However, the Yarsani lack political rights in both countries.
【参考译文】尽管大多数神圣的雅尔桑文献是用戈兰尼语写成的，且所有雅尔桑教的圣地都位于库尔德斯坦，但该宗教的信徒也分布在其他地区。例如，伊拉克库尔德斯坦有30多万雅尔桑人，而伊朗则有200多万雅尔桑人。[76]然而，在这两个国家，雅尔桑人都缺乏政治权利。

4.4 琐罗亚斯德教（祆教）| Zoroastrianism

Main article: Zoroastrianism【主条目：琐罗亚斯德教（祆教）】

The Iranian religion of Zoroastrianism has had a major influence on the Iranian culture, which Kurds are a part of, and has maintained some effect since the demise of the religion in the Middle Ages. The Iranian philosopher Sohrevardi drew heavily from Zoroastrian teachings.^[77] Ascribed to the teachings of the prophet Zoroaster, the faith’s Supreme Being is Ahura Mazda. Leading characteristics, such as messianism, the Golden Rule, heaven and hell, and free will influenced other religious systems, including Second Temple Judaism, Gnosticism, Christianity, and Islam.^[78]
【参考译文】琐罗亚斯德教作为伊朗的宗教，对伊朗文化产生了重大影响，而库尔德人是伊朗文化的一部分，即便该宗教在中世纪消亡后，其影响依然持续至今。伊朗哲学家索赫拉瓦迪深受琐罗亚斯德教教义的影响。[77]琐罗亚斯德教的最高神祇为阿胡拉·马兹达，该信仰归功于先知琐罗亚斯德的教诲。其主要特征，如救世主观念、黄金法则、天堂与地狱以及自由意志等，对其他宗教体系，包括第二圣殿时期的犹太教、诺斯替主义、基督教和伊斯兰教都产生了影响。[78]

In 2016, the first official Zoroastrian fire temple of Iraqi Kurdistan opened in Sulaymaniyah. Attendees celebrated the occasion by lighting a ritual fire and beating the frame drum or ‘daf’.^[79] Awat Tayib, the chief of followers of Zoroastrianism in the Kurdistan region, claimed that many were returning to Zoroastrianism but some kept it secret out of fear of reprisals from Islamists.^[79]
【参考译文】2016年，伊拉克库尔德斯坦第一座正式的琐罗亚斯德教火神庙在苏莱曼尼亚开幕。参与者通过点燃祭祀之火和敲打达夫鼓（一种框鼓）来庆祝这一盛事。[79]库尔德斯坦地区琐罗亚斯德教的领袖阿瓦特·塔伊卜声称，很多人正在回归琐罗亚斯德教，但有些人出于担心伊斯兰主义者的报复而将其信仰保密。[79]

4.5 基督宗教 | Christianity

Main articles: Kurdish Christians, Bible translations into Kurdish, and Christianity
【主条目：库尔德基督徒、圣经的库尔德语译本和基督宗教】

Although historically there have been various accounts of Kurdish Christians, most often these were in the form of individuals, and not as communities. However, in the 19th and 20th century various travel logs tell of Kurdish Christian tribes, as well as Kurdish Muslim tribes who had substantial Christian populations living amongst them. A significant number of these were allegedly originally Armenian or Assyrian,^[80] and it has been recorded that a small number of Christian traditions have been preserved. Several Christian prayers in Kurdish have been found from earlier centuries.^[81] In recent years some Kurds from Muslim backgrounds have converted to Christianity.^[82][83][84]
【参考译文】尽管历史上曾有关于库尔德基督徒的各种记载，但他们大多是以个人的形式存在，而非作为社群。然而，19世纪和20世纪的旅行日志讲述了库尔德基督徒部落，以及其中生活着大量基督徒的库尔德穆斯林部落的情况。据说，其中相当一部分人原本是亚美尼亚人或亚述人，[80]而且，据记载，少数基督教传统得以保留。人们还发现了数世纪前用库尔德语写成的基督教祷文。[81]近年来，一些来自穆斯林背景的库尔德人皈依了基督教。[82][83][84]

Segments of the Bible were first made available in the Kurdish language in 1856 in the Kurmanji dialect. The Gospels were translated by Stepan, an Armenian employee of the American Bible Society and were published in 1857. Prominent historical Kurdish Christians include the brothers Zakare and Ivane Mkhargrdzeli.^[85][86][87]
【参考译文】1856年，圣经的部分内容首次以库尔德语（库尔德曼吉方言）出版。福音书由美国圣经协会的一名亚美尼亚雇员斯捷潘翻译，并于1857年出版。历史上著名的库尔德基督徒包括扎卡雷和伊万·姆哈尔格兹利兄弟。[85][86][87]

5. 历史 | History

Main article: History of the Kurdish people【主条目：库尔德人民族史】

主条目：库尔德历史

5.1 上古 | Antiquity

Main article: Origin of the Kurds【主条目：库尔德人的起源】

“The land of Karda” is mentioned on a Sumerian clay tablet dated to the 3rd millennium BC. This land was inhabited by “the people of Su” who dwelt in the southern regions of Lake Van; the philological connection between “Kurd” and “Karda” is uncertain, but the relationship is considered possible.^[88] Other Sumerian clay tablets referred to the people, who lived in the land of Karda, as the Qarduchi (Karduchi, Karduchoi) and the Qurti.^[89] Karda/Qardu is etymologically related to the Assyrian term Urartu and the Hebrew term Ararat.^[90] However, some modern scholars do not believe that the Qarduchi are connected to Kurds.^[91][92]
【参考译文】“卡达之地”出现在一块可追溯至公元前3千年的苏美尔泥板上。这片土地由居住在凡湖南部地区的“苏人”居住；“库尔德”与“卡达”之间的语言学联系尚不确定，但二者之间可能存在关联。[88]其他苏美尔泥板将生活在卡达之地的人称为卡尔杜奇（Karduchi，Karduchoi）和库尔提（Qurti）。[89]从词源学上讲，卡达/卡尔杜与亚述语中的乌拉尔图和希伯来语中的阿拉拉特相关。[90]然而，一些现代学者并不认为卡尔杜奇与库尔德人有关联。[91][92]

Qarti or Qartas, who were originally settled on the mountains north of Mesopotamia, are considered as a probable ancestor of the Kurds. The Akkadians were attacked by nomads coming through Qartas territory at the end of 3rd millennium BC and distinguished them as the Guti, speakers of a pre-Iranic language isolate. They conquered Mesopotamia in 2150 BC and ruled with 21 kings until defeated by the Sumerian king Utu-hengal.^[93]
【参考译文】原本定居在美索不达米亚北部山区的卡尔塔斯人被认为是库尔德人可能的祖先。在公元前3千年末，阿卡德人遭到穿过卡尔塔斯领土的游牧民族的袭击，并因其说着一种孤立的前伊朗语而称其为古提人。公元前2150年，古提人征服了美索不达米亚，并在21位国王的统治下，直至被苏美尔国王乌图-亨加尔击败。[93]

Many Kurds consider themselves descended from the Medes, an ancient Iranian people,^[94] and even use a calendar dating from 612 BC, when the Assyrian capital of Nineveh was conquered by the Medes.^[95] The claimed Median descent is reflected in the words of the Kurdish national anthem: “We are the children of the Medes and Kai Khosrow.”^[96] However, MacKenzie and Asatrian challenge the relation of the Median language to Kurdish.^[97][98] The Kurdish languages, on the other hand, form a subgroup of the Northwestern Iranian languages like Median.^[50][99] Some researchers consider the independent Kardouchoi as the ancestors of the Kurds,^[100] while others prefer Cyrtians.^[101] The term Kurd, however, is first encountered in Arabic sources of the seventh century.^[102] Books from the early Islamic era, including those containing legends such as the Shahnameh and the Middle Persian Kar-Namag i Ardashir i Pabagan, and other early Islamic sources provide early attestation of the name Kurd.^[103] The Kurds have ethnically diverse origins.^[104][105]
【参考译文】许多库尔德人认为自己是古代伊朗民族米底人的后裔，[94]甚至使用一种可追溯至公元前612年的日历，即米底人征服亚述首都尼尼微的那一年。[95]库尔德民族所宣称的米底血统体现在库尔德国歌的歌词中：“我们是米底人和凯·霍斯鲁的后代。”[96]然而，麦肯齐和阿萨特里亚质疑米底语与库尔德语的关系。[97][98]另一方面，库尔德语与米底语一样，属于西北伊朗语支的一个子群。[50][99]一些研究人员认为独立的卡尔杜奇人是库尔德人的祖先，[100]而另一些人则认为是库尔提人。[101]然而，“库尔德”一词最早出现在7世纪的阿拉伯文献中。[102]早期伊斯兰时代的书籍，包括包含如《列王纪》和《中波斯卡尔纳马格·阿尔达希尔·帕巴甘》等传说的书籍，以及其他早期伊斯兰文献，都证明了“库尔德”一词的早期存在。[103]库尔德人具有多种族起源。[104][105]

During the Sassanid era, in Kar-Namag i Ardashir i Pabagan, a short prose work written in Middle Persian, Ardashir I is depicted as having battled the Kurds and their leader, Madig. After initially sustaining a heavy defeat, Ardashir I was successful in subjugating the Kurds.^[106] In a letter Ardashir I received from his foe, Ardavan V, which is also featured in the same work, he is referred to as being a Kurd himself.
【参考译文】在萨珊王朝时期，在中波斯文著作《卡尔纳马格·阿尔达希尔·帕巴甘》中，阿尔达希尔一世被描绘为曾与库尔德人及其领袖马迪格交战。在最初遭受重创后，阿尔达希尔一世成功征服了库尔德人。[106]在同一著作中提到的阿尔达希尔一世从敌人阿尔达万五世收到的一封信中，他被称为库尔德人的后裔。

You’ve bitten off more than you can chew
【参考译文】你贪多嚼不烂，

and you have brought death to yourself.
【参考译文】给自己带来了死亡。

O son of a Kurd, raised in the tents of the Kurds,
【参考译文】哦，你这个在库尔德人帐篷里长大的库尔德人的儿子，

who gave you permission to put a crown on your head?^[107]
【参考译文】是谁允许你把皇冠戴在头上的？[107]

The usage of the term Kurd during this time period most likely was a social term, designating Northwestern Iranian nomads, rather than a concrete ethnic group.^[107][108]
【参考译文】在这一时期，“库尔德”一词的使用很可能是一个社会术语，指的是西北伊朗的游牧民族，而不是一个具体的民族。[107][108]

Similarly, in AD 360, the Sassanid king Shapur II marched into the Roman province Zabdicene, to conquer its chief city, Bezabde, present-day Cizre. He found it heavily fortified, and guarded by three legions and a large body of Kurdish archers.^[109] After a long and hard-fought siege, Shapur II breached the walls, conquered the city and massacred all its defenders. Thereafter he had the strategically located city repaired, provisioned and garrisoned with his best troops.^[109]
【参考译文】同样，在公元360年，萨珊王朝的国王沙普尔二世进军罗马行省扎卜迪切内，征服了其首府贝扎布德，即今天的杰济雷。他发现该城防御坚固，由三个军团和大量库尔德弓箭手守卫。[109]经过漫长而艰苦的围攻后，沙普尔二世突破了城墙，攻占了该城，并屠杀了所有守军。之后，他修复了这座战略位置重要的城市，为其提供了补给，并用他最精锐的部队驻守。[109]

Qadishaye, settled by Kavad in Singara, were probably Kurds^[110] and worshiped the martyr Abd al-Masih.^[111] They revolted against the Sassanids and were raiding the whole Persian territory. Later they, along with Arabs and Armenians, joined the Sassanids in their war against the Byzantines.^[112]
【参考译文】卡瓦德在辛加拉定居的卡迪沙伊人可能是库尔德人，[110]他们崇拜烈士阿卜杜·勒·马西赫。[111]他们起兵反抗萨珊王朝，并袭击了整个波斯领土。后来，他们与阿拉伯人和亚美尼亚人一起加入了萨珊王朝与拜占庭的战争。[112]

There is also a 7th-century text by an unidentified author, written about the legendary Christian martyr Mar Qardagh. He lived in the 4th century, during the reign of Shapur II, and during his travels is said to have encountered Mar Abdisho, a deacon and martyr, who, after having been questioned of his origins by Mar Qardagh and his Marzobans, stated that his parents were originally from an Assyrian village called Hazza, but were driven out and subsequently settled in Tamanon, a village in the land of the Kurds, identified as being in the region of Mount Judi.^[113]
【参考译文】还有一篇7世纪的匿名作者所著的文本，讲述了传说中的基督教烈士马尔·卡尔达格的事迹。他生活在4世纪，沙普尔二世统治时期，据说在旅行中遇到了执事兼烈士马尔·阿卜迪肖。马尔·卡尔达格和他的同伴马尔佐班询问马尔·阿卜迪肖的出身时，他回答说，他的父母原本来自一个叫哈扎的亚述村庄，但被驱逐出境，随后定居在库尔德人居住地的塔马农村，据信位于朱迪山区。[113]

5.2 中世纪时期 | Medieval period

Early Syriac sources use the terms Hurdanaye, Kurdanaye, Kurdaye to refer to the Kurds. According to Michael the Syrian, Hurdanaye separated from Tayaye Arabs and sought refuge with the Byzantine Emperor Theophilus. He also mentions the Persian troops who fought against Musa chief of Hurdanaye in the region of Qardu in 841. According to Barhebreaus, a king appeared to the Kurdanaye and they rebelled against the Arabs in 829. Michael the Syrian considered them as pagan, followers of mahdi and adepts of Magianism. Their mahdi called himself Christ and the Holy Ghost.^[114]
【参考译文】早期叙利亚文资料使用“Hurdanaye”、“Kurdanaye”和“Kurdaye”等术语来指代库尔德人。据叙利亚人迈克尔所述，Hurdanaye从Tayaye阿拉伯人中分离出来，并向拜占庭皇帝狄奥菲卢斯寻求庇护。他还提到了波斯军队于841年在Qardu地区与Hurdanaye首领穆萨交战的历史。据巴尔赫伯留斯所述，一位国王曾出现在Kurdanaye人面前，于是他们在829年反叛阿拉伯人。迈克尔认为库尔德人是异教徒，是马赫迪信徒和玛吉亚教派的追随者。他们的马赫迪自称为基督和圣灵。[114]

In the early Middle Ages, the Kurds sporadically appear in Arabic sources, though the term was still not being used for a specific people; instead it referred to an amalgam of nomadic western Iranian tribes, who were distinct from Persians. However, in the High Middle Ages, the Kurdish ethnic identity gradually materialized, as one can find clear evidence of the Kurdish ethnic identity and solidarity in texts of the 12th and 13th centuries,^[115] though, the term was also still being used in the social sense.^[116] Since 10th century, Arabic texts including al-Masudi‘s works, have referred to Kurds as a distinct linguistic group.^[117] From 11th century onward, the term Kurd is explicitly defined as an ethnonym and this does not suggest synonymity with the ethnographic category nomad.^[118] Al-Tabari wrote that in 639, Hormuzan, a Sasanian general originating from a noble family, battled against the Islamic invaders in Khuzestan, and called upon the Kurds to aid him in battle.^[119] However, they were defeated and brought under Islamic rule.
【参考译文】在中世纪早期，库尔德人偶尔出现在阿拉伯文资料中，但当时这个词还没有用来指代某个特定民族，而是指由不同于波斯人的游牧西部伊朗部落混合而成的人群。然而，到了中世纪盛期，库尔德人的民族身份逐渐显现，在12世纪和13世纪的文献中可以找到关于库尔德人民族身份和团结的明确证据，[115]不过，当时这个词在社会意义上仍被使用。[116]自10世纪起，阿拉伯文资料，包括马苏迪的作品，已将库尔德人称为一个独特的语言群体。[117]从11世纪起，“库尔德人”这一术语被明确定义为族称，这并不意味着它与游牧民族这一人种学范畴是同义词。[118]塔巴里记载，639年，出身贵族家庭的萨珊王朝将领霍尔木赞在胡齐斯坦与伊斯兰入侵者交战，并号召库尔德人助战。[119]然而，他们被击败，并置于伊斯兰统治之下。

In 838, a Kurdish leader based in Mosul, named Mir Jafar, revolted against the Caliph Al-Mu’tasim who sent the commander Itakh to combat him. Itakh won this war and executed many of the Kurds.^[120][121] Eventually, Arabs conquered the Kurdish regions and gradually converted the majority of Kurds to Islam, often incorporating them into the military, such as the Hamdanids whose dynastic family members also frequently intermarried with Kurds.^[122][123]
【参考译文】838年，摩苏尔的一位库尔德领袖米尔·贾法尔起兵反抗哈里发阿尔-穆塔西姆，后者派遣指挥官伊塔赫与之交战。伊塔赫赢得了这场战争，并处决了许多库尔德人。[120][121]最终，阿拉伯人征服了库尔德地区，并逐渐将大多数库尔德人皈依伊斯兰教，经常将他们纳入军队，如哈姆丹尼德王朝，其家族成员也经常与库尔德人通婚。[122][123]

In 934, the Daylamite Buyid dynasty was founded, and subsequently conquered most of present-day Iran and Iraq. During the time of rule of this dynasty, Kurdish chief and ruler, Badr ibn Hasanwaih, established himself as one of the most important emirs of the time.^[124]
【参考译文】934年，戴拉姆人建立的布伊德王朝成立，随后征服了现今伊朗和伊拉克的大部分地区。在这个王朝统治期间，库尔德酋长和统治者巴德尔·伊本·哈桑威赫成为当时最重要的埃米尔之一。[124]

In the 10th–12th centuries, a number of Kurdish principalities and dynasties were founded, ruling Kurdistan and neighbouring areas:
【参考译文】在10至12世纪期间，许多库尔德公国和王朝成立，统治着库尔德斯坦及其周边地区：

• The Shaddadids (951–1174)^{[125][126][127][128]} ruled parts of Armenia and Arran.
  【参考译文】沙达德王朝（951-1174年）[125][126][127][128]统治了亚美尼亚和阿塞拜疆的部分地区。
• The Rawadid (955–1221) They were Arab origin, later Kurdicized^[128] and ruled Azerbaijan.
  【参考译文】拉瓦德王朝（955-1221年），他们原本是阿拉伯人，后来库尔德化[128]，统治了阿塞拜疆。
• The Hasanwayhids (959–1015)^[127] ruled western Iran and upper Mesopotamia.
  【参考译文】哈桑威赫王朝（959-1015年）[127]统治了伊朗西部和上美索不达米亚。
• The Marwanids (990–1096)^{[129][127][128]} ruled eastern Anatolia.
  【参考译文】马尔瓦尼德王朝（990-1096年）[129][127][128]统治了小亚细亚东部。
• The Annazids (990–1117)^[130][127] ruled western Iran and Upper Mesopotamia (succeeded the Hasanwayhids).
  【参考译文】安纳齐德王朝（990-1117年）[130][127]统治了伊朗西部和上美索不达米亚（接替了哈桑威赫王朝）。
• The Hazaraspids (1148–1424)^[131] ruled southwestern Iran.
  【参考译文】哈扎拉斯皮德王朝（1148-1424年）[131]统治了伊朗西南部。
• The Ayyubids (1171–1341)^[132] ruled Egypt, Syria, Upper Mesopotamia, Hejaz, Yemen and parts of southeastern Anatolia.
  【参考译文】阿尤布王朝（1171-1341年）[132]统治了埃及、叙利亚、上美索不达米亚、希贾兹、也门和小亚细亚东南部的部分地区。

Due to the Turkic invasion of Anatolia and Armenia, the 11th-century Kurdish dynasties crumbled and became incorporated into the Seljuk dynasty. Kurds would hereafter be used in great numbers in the armies of the Zengids.^[133] The Ayyubid dynasty was founded by Kurdish ruler Saladin,^{[134][135][136][137]} as succeeding the Zengids, the Ayyubids established themselves in 1171. Saladin led the Muslims to recapture the city of Jerusalem from the Crusaders at the Battle of Hattin; also frequently clashing with the Assassins. The Ayyubid dynasty lasted until 1341 when the Ayyubid sultanate fell to Mongolian invasions.
【参考译文】由于突厥人入侵小亚细亚和亚美尼亚，11世纪的库尔德王朝崩溃，并被塞尔柱王朝吞并。此后，大量的库尔德人被征召到赞吉王朝的军队中服役。[133]阿尤布王朝由库尔德统治者萨拉丁建立，[134][135][136][137]在接替赞吉王朝后，阿尤布王朝于1171年确立了自己的地位。萨拉丁领导穆斯林在哈丁战役中从十字军手中夺回了耶路撒冷城；他还经常与暗杀者发生冲突。阿尤布王朝一直持续到1341年，当时阿尤布苏丹国被蒙古人的入侵所推翻。

5.3 萨法维时期 | Safavid period

Further information: Safavid dynasty【更多信息：萨法维王朝】

The Safavid dynasty, established in 1501, also established its rule over Kurdish-inhabited territories. The paternal line of this family actually had Kurdish roots,^[140] tracing back to Firuz-Shah Zarrin-Kolah, a dignitary who moved from Kurdistan to Ardabil in the 11th century.^[141][142] The Battle of Chaldiran in 1514 that culminated in what is nowadays Iran’s West Azerbaijan Province, marked the start of the Ottoman-Persian Wars between the Iranian Safavids (and successive Iranian dynasties) and the Ottomans. For the next 300 years, many of the Kurds found themselves living in territories that frequently changed hands between Ottoman Turkey and Iran during the protracted series of Ottoman-Persian Wars.
【参考译文】萨法维王朝于1501年建立，同时也确立了对库尔德人居住地区的统治。这个家族的父系血统实际上有着库尔德根源，[140]可以追溯到11世纪从库尔德斯坦迁往阿尔达比尔的显贵人物菲鲁兹·沙阿·扎林·科拉。[141][142]1514年的查尔迪兰战役以今天的伊朗西阿塞拜疆省为战场，标志着伊朗萨法维王朝（及其后的伊朗王朝）与奥斯曼帝国之间的奥斯曼-波斯战争的开始。在接下来的300年里，许多库尔德人发现自己生活在奥斯曼土耳其和伊朗之间因奥斯曼-波斯战争而频繁易手的地区。

The Safavid king Ismail I (r. 1501–1524) put down a Yezidi rebellion which went on from 1506 to 1510. A century later, the year-long Battle of Dimdim took place, wherein the Safavid king Abbas I (r. 1588–1629) succeeded in putting down the rebellion led by the Kurdish ruler Amir Khan Lepzerin. Thereafter, many Kurds were deported to Khorasan, not only to weaken the Kurds, but also to protect the eastern border from invading Afghan and Turkmen tribes.^[143] Other forced movements and deportations of other groups were also implemented by Abbas I and his successors, most notably of the Armenians, the Georgians, and the Circassians, who were moved en masse to and from other districts within the Persian empire.^{[144][145][146][147][148]}
【参考译文】萨法维国王伊斯梅尔一世（1501-1524年在位）镇压了从1506年到1510年发生的耶兹迪人叛乱。一个世纪后，发生了一年的迪姆迪姆战役，其中萨法维国王阿巴斯一世（1588-1629年在位）成功镇压了由库尔德统治者阿米尔·汗·莱普泽林领导的叛乱。此后，许多库尔德人被驱逐到呼罗珊地区，这不仅是为了削弱库尔德人的力量，也是为了保护东部边境免受入侵的阿富汗和土库曼部落的威胁。[143]阿巴斯一世及其继任者也实施了其他群体的强迫迁移和驱逐，其中最引人注目的是亚美尼亚人、格鲁吉亚人和切尔克斯人，他们被大规模地迁移到波斯帝国境内的其他地区或从其他地区迁出。[144][145][146][147][148]

The Kurds of Khorasan, numbering around 700,000, still use the Kurmanji Kurdish dialect.^[149][150] Several Kurdish noblemen served the Safavids and rose to prominence, such as Shaykh Ali Khan Zanganeh, who served as the grand vizier of the Safavid shah Suleiman I (r. 1666–1694) from 1669 to 1689. Due to his efforts in reforming the declining Iranian economy, he has been called the “Safavid Amir Kabir” in modern historiography.^[151] His son, Shahqoli Khan Zanganeh, also served as a grand vizier from 1707 to 1716. Another Kurdish statesman, Ganj Ali Khan, was close friends with Abbas I, and served as governor in various provinces and was known for his loyal service.
【参考译文】呼罗珊地区的库尔德人数量约为70万，至今仍使用库尔德语库尔德曼吉方言。[149][150]几位库尔德贵族为萨法维王朝效劳并崭露头角，如谢赫·阿里·汗·赞加内，他于1669年至1689年间担任萨法维国王苏莱曼一世（1666-1694年在位）的大维齐尔。由于他在改革伊朗衰退经济方面的努力，他在现代史学中被称为“萨法维王朝的阿米尔·卡比尔”。[151]他的儿子沙赫克利·汗·赞加内也于1707年至1716年间担任大维齐尔。另一位库尔德政治家甘贾利·汗与阿巴斯一世关系密切，曾在多个省份担任省长，并以忠诚服务而闻名。

5.4 赞德时期 | Zand period

Further information: Zand dynasty【更多信息：赞德王朝】

After the fall of the Safavids, Iran fell under the control of the Afsharid Empire ruled by Nader Shah at its peak. After Nader’s death, Iran fell into civil war, with multiple leaders trying to gain control over the country. Ultimately, it was Karim Khan, a Laki general of the Zand tribe who would come to power.^[152]
【参考译文】萨法维王朝覆灭后，伊朗落入了由纳迪尔沙统治的鼎盛时期的阿夫沙尔王朝的控制之下。纳迪尔沙去世后，伊朗陷入内战，多位领导人试图掌控国家。最终，来自赞德部落的拉基将军卡里姆·汗登上了权力宝座。[152]

The country would flourish during Karim Khan’s reign; a strong resurgence of the arts would take place, and international ties were strengthened.^[153] Karim Khan was portrayed as being a ruler who truly cared about his subjects, thereby gaining the title Vakil e-Ra’aayaa (meaning Representative of the People in Persian).^[153] Though not as powerful in its geo-political and military reach as the preceding Safavids and Afsharids or even the early Qajars, he managed to reassert Iranian hegemony over its integral territories in the Caucasus, and presided over an era of relative peace, prosperity, and tranquility. In Ottoman Iraq, following the Ottoman–Persian War (1775–76), Karim Khan managed to seize Basra for several years.^[154][155]
【参考译文】在卡里姆·汗统治期间，伊朗将迎来繁荣；艺术将强势复兴，国际关系也将得到加强。[153]卡里姆·汗被描绘成一位真正关心臣民的统治者，因此获得了“瓦基勒·拉阿亚”（波斯语中意为“人民代表”）的称号。[153]尽管在地缘政治和军事影响力上不如之前的萨法维王朝、阿夫沙尔王朝，甚至早期的恺加王朝，但他还是成功重振了伊朗在高加索地区所属领土的霸权，并主政了一个相对和平、繁荣和安宁的时代。在奥斯曼帝国统治下的伊拉克，奥斯曼-波斯战争（1775-1776年）结束后，卡里姆·汗成功占领了巴士拉数年。[154][155]

After Karim Khan’s death, the dynasty would decline in favour of the rival Qajars due to infighting between the Khan’s incompetent offspring. It was not until Lotf Ali Khan, 10 years later, that the dynasty would once again be led by an adept ruler. By this time however, the Qajars had already progressed greatly, having taken a number of Zand territories. Lotf Ali Khan made multiple successes before ultimately succumbing to the rivaling faction. Iran and all its Kurdish territories would hereby be incorporated in the Qajar dynasty.
【参考译文】卡里姆·汗去世后，由于可汗无能的子孙之间的内斗，该王朝逐渐衰落，最终让位于与之对立的恺加王朝。直到10年后的洛特夫·阿里·汗掌权，该王朝才再次迎来一位精明的统治者。但此时，恺加王朝已经取得了很大进展，占领了许多赞德王朝的领土。洛特夫·阿里·汗多次取得胜利，但最终还是屈服于对立派系。伊朗及其所有库尔德领土至此被纳入恺加王朝的版图。

The Kurdish tribes present in Baluchistan and some of those in Fars are believed to be remnants of those that assisted and accompanied Lotf Ali Khan and Karim Khan, respectively.^[156]
【参考译文】据信，俾路支省和法尔斯省的一些库尔德部落分别是协助和追随洛特夫·阿里·汗和卡里姆·汗的残余部落。[156]

5.5 奥斯曼时期 | Ottoman period

Further information: Ottoman Kurds, Ottoman Empire, and Sheikh Ubeydullah
【更多信息：奥斯曼库尔德人、奥斯曼帝国和谢赫·乌拜杜拉】

When Sultan Selim I, after defeating Shah Ismail I in 1514, annexed Western Armenia and Kurdistan, he entrusted the organisation of the conquered territories to Idris, the historian, who was a Kurd of Bitlis. He divided the territory into sanjaks or districts, and, making no attempt to interfere with the principle of heredity, installed the local chiefs as governors. He also resettled the rich pastoral country between Erzerum and Erivan, which had lain in waste since the passage of Timur, with Kurds from the Hakkari and Bohtan districts. For the next centuries, from the Peace of Amasya until the first half of the 19th century, several regions of the wide Kurdish homelands would be contested as well between the Ottomans and the neighbouring rival successive Iranian dynasties (Safavids, Afsharids, Qajars) in the frequent Ottoman-Persian Wars.
【参考译文】1514年，苏丹塞利姆一世在击败沙阿·伊斯梅尔一世后，吞并了西亚美尼亚和库尔德斯坦，并将被征服领土的组织工作交给了历史学家伊德里斯，他是比特利斯的库尔德人。伊德里斯将这些领土划分为桑贾克（行政区），并且没有试图干涉世袭原则，而是任命当地酋长担任总督。他还将从帖木儿经过后就变得荒芜的埃尔祖鲁姆和埃里温之间的富饶牧场重新安置了来自哈卡里和博谭地区的库尔德人。在接下来的几个世纪里，从阿马西亚和约直到19世纪上半叶，在频繁的奥斯曼-波斯战争中，广阔的库尔德故土的多个地区也成为了奥斯曼帝国和与之相邻的、接连兴起的伊朗王朝（萨法维王朝、阿夫沙尔王朝、恺加王朝）之间的争夺之地。

The Ottoman centralist policies in the beginning of the 19th century aimed to remove power from the principalities and localities, which directly affected the Kurdish emirs. Bedirhan Bey was the last emir of the Cizre Bohtan Emirate after initiating an uprising in 1847 against the Ottomans to protect the current structures of the Kurdish principalities. Although his uprising is not classified as a nationalist one, his children played significant roles in the emergence and the development of Kurdish nationalism through the next century.^[157]
【参考译文】19世纪初，奥斯曼帝国的集权政策旨在剥夺公国和地方的权力，这直接影响了库尔德酋长。贝迪兰·贝伊是奇兹雷·博谭酋长国的最后一位酋长，他在1847年发动起义反对奥斯曼帝国，以保护库尔德公国的现有结构。尽管他的起义不被归类为民族主义起义，但他的子女在接下来的一个世纪里在库尔德民族主义的出现和发展中发挥了重要作用。[157]

The first modern Kurdish nationalist movement emerged in 1880 with an uprising led by a Kurdish landowner and head of the powerful Shemdinan family, Sheik Ubeydullah, who demanded political autonomy or outright independence for Kurds as well as the recognition of a Kurdistan state without interference from Turkish or Persian authorities.^[158] The uprising against Qajar Persia and the Ottoman Empire was ultimately suppressed by the Ottomans and Ubeydullah, along with other notables, were exiled to Istanbul.
【参考译文】第一场现代库尔德民族主义运动于1880年兴起，由库尔德地主、强大的谢姆迪南家族族长谢赫·乌拜杜拉领导发动起义，他要求为库尔德人提供政治自治或彻底的独立，并要求承认库尔德斯坦国家，不受土耳其或波斯当局的干涉。[158]这场反对恺加波斯王朝和奥斯曼帝国的起义最终被奥斯曼帝国镇压，乌拜杜拉和其他知名人士一起被流放至伊斯坦布尔。

5.6 20世纪的库尔德民族主义 | Kurdish nationalism of the 20th century

Further information: Kurdish nationalism, Rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire, Deportations of Kurds (1916–1934), and Iraqi Kurdistan
【更多信息：库尔德民族主义、奥斯曼帝国下的民族主义兴起、库尔德人驱逐事件（1916-1934年）和伊拉克库尔德斯坦】

Kurdish nationalism emerged after World War I with the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, which had historically successfully integrated (but not assimilated) the Kurds, through use of forced repression of Kurdish independence movements. Revolts did occur sporadically but only in 1880 with the uprising led by Sheik Ubeydullah did the Kurds as an ethnic group or nation make demands. Ottoman sultan Abdul Hamid II (r. 1876–1909) responded with a campaign of integration by co-opting prominent Kurdish opponents to strengthen Ottoman power with offers of prestigious positions in his government. This strategy appears to have been successful, given the loyalty displayed by the Kurdish Hamidiye regiments during World War I.^[159]
【参考译文】库尔德民族主义在一战后随着奥斯曼帝国的解体而兴起。奥斯曼帝国在历史上曾成功地融合了（但并非同化）库尔德人，但它是通过强制镇压库尔德独立运动来实现的。起义确实时有发生，但直到1880年由谢赫·乌拜杜拉领导的起义，库尔德人才作为一个民族或族群提出了要求。奥斯曼苏丹阿卜杜勒·哈米德二世（1876-1909年在位）通过拉拢著名的库尔德反对派来加强奥斯曼帝国的权力，向他们提供政府中的显赫职位，以此作为融合的手段。考虑到库尔德哈米德耶军团在一战期间表现出的忠诚，这一策略似乎取得了成功。[159]

The Kurdish ethno-nationalist movement that emerged following World War I and the end of the Ottoman Empire in 1922 largely represented a reaction to the changes taking place in mainstream Turkey, primarily to the radical secularization, the centralization of authority, and to the rampant Turkish nationalism in the new Turkish Republic.^[160]
【参考译文】一战后和1922年奥斯曼帝国结束之际兴起的库尔德民族主义运动，主要是对主流土耳其正在发生的变化的反应，主要是对土耳其新共和国激进世俗化、权力集中化和猖獗的土耳其民族主义的反应。[160]

Jakob Künzler, head of a missionary hospital in Urfa, documented the large-scale ethnic cleansing of both Armenians and Kurds by the Young Turks.^[161] He has given a detailed account of the deportation of Kurds from Erzurum and Bitlis in the winter of 1916. The Kurds were perceived to be subversive elements who would take the Russian side in the war. In order to eliminate this threat, Young Turks embarked on a large-scale deportation of Kurds from the regions of Djabachdjur, Palu, Musch, Erzurum and Bitlis. Around 300,000 Kurds were forced to move southwards to Urfa and then westwards to Aintab and Marasch. In the summer of 1917 Kurds were moved to Konya in central Anatolia. Through these measures, the Young Turk leaders aimed at weakening the political influence of the Kurds by deporting them from their ancestral lands and by dispersing them in small pockets of exiled communities. By the end of World War I, up to 700,000 Kurds had been forcibly deported and almost half of the displaced perished.^[162]
【参考译文】雅各布·昆茨勒是乌尔法一家传教医院的院长，他记录了青年土耳其党人对亚美尼亚人和库尔德人的大规模种族清洗。[161]他详细叙述了1916年冬天库尔德人被从埃尔祖鲁姆和比特利斯驱逐的情况。库尔德人被视为会在战争中站在俄罗斯一方的颠覆性力量。为了消除这一威胁，青年土耳其党人开始从贾巴赫朱尔、帕卢、穆什、埃尔祖鲁姆和比特利斯等地区大规模驱逐库尔德人。大约30万库尔德人被迫向南迁移到乌尔法，然后向西迁移到艾因塔布和马腊什。1917年夏天，库尔德人被迁移到安纳托利亚中部的科尼亚。通过这些措施，青年土耳其党领导人旨在通过将库尔德人从其祖传土地上驱逐出去并将他们分散在流亡社区的小范围内，来削弱库尔德人的政治影响力。到一战结束时，多达70万库尔德人被强行驱逐出境，其中近一半人在流亡中丧生。[162]

Some of the Kurdish groups sought self-determination and the confirmation of Kurdish autonomy in the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres, but in the aftermath of World War I, Kemal Atatürk prevented such a result. Kurds backed by the United Kingdom declared independence in 1927 and established the Republic of Ararat. Turkey suppressed Kurdist revolts in 1925, 1930, and 1937–1938, while Iran in the 1920s suppressed Simko Shikak at Lake Urmia and Jaafar Sultan of the Hewraman region, who controlled the region between Marivan and north of Halabja. A short-lived Soviet-sponsored Kurdish Republic of Mahabad (January to December 1946) existed in an area of present-day Iran.
【参考译文】一些库尔德团体在1920年的《色佛尔条约》中寻求自决和库尔德自治的确认，但一战后，凯末尔·阿塔图尔克阻止了这样的结果。1927年，得到英国支持的库尔德人宣布独立，并建立了阿拉拉特共和国。土耳其分别在1925年、1930年和1937-1938年镇压了库尔德起义，而伊朗则在20世纪20年代镇压了乌尔米亚湖的西姆科·希卡克和控制马里万与哈拉布贾以北地区的休拉曼地区的贾法尔·苏丹。一个短命的苏联支持的马哈巴德库尔德共和国（1946年1月至12月）存在于当今伊朗的一个地区。

From 1922 to 1924 in Iraq a Kingdom of Kurdistan existed. When Ba’athist administrators thwarted Kurdish nationalist ambitions in Iraq, war broke out in the 1960s. In 1970 the Kurds rejected limited territorial self-rule within Iraq, demanding larger areas, including the oil-rich Kirkuk region.
【参考译文】1922年至1924年间，伊拉克境内存在一个库尔德斯坦王国。20世纪60年代，当复兴党行政官员阻挠伊拉克境内库尔德民族主义者的野心时，战争爆发了。1970年，库尔德人拒绝了伊拉克境内有限的自治提议，要求获得包括石油资源丰富的基尔库克地区在内的大片区域。

During the 1920s and 1930s, several large-scale Kurdish revolts took place in Kurdistan. Following these rebellions, the area of Turkish Kurdistan was put under martial law and many of the Kurds were displaced. The Turkish government also encouraged resettlement of Albanians from Kosovo and Assyrians in the region to change the make-up of the population. These events and measures led to long-lasting mutual distrust between Ankara and the Kurds.^[163]
【参考译文】20世纪20年代和30年代，库尔德斯坦发生了多起大规模的库尔德人起义。这些叛乱之后，土耳其库尔德斯坦地区实行了军管，许多库尔德人被流离失所。土耳其政府还鼓励来自科索沃的阿尔巴尼亚人和亚述人在该地区定居，以改变当地的人口构成。这些事件和措施导致安卡拉和库尔德人之间长期存在互不信任。[163]

Kurdish officers from the Iraqi army […] were said to have approached Soviet army authorities soon after their arrival in Iran in 1941 and offered to form a Kurdish volunteer force to fight alongside the Red Army. This offer was declined.^[164]
【参考译文】据说，伊拉克军队中的库尔德军官在1941年抵达伊朗后不久，就曾向苏联军队当局提出组建一支库尔德志愿军与红军并肩作战的建议。但这个提议被拒绝了。[164]

During the relatively open government of the 1950s in Turkey, Kurds gained political office and started working within the framework of the Turkish Republic to further their interests, but this move towards integration was halted with the 1960 Turkish coup d’état.^[159] The 1970s saw an evolution in Kurdish nationalism as Marxist political thought influenced some in the new generation of Kurdish nationalists opposed to the local feudal authorities who had been a traditional source of opposition to authority; in 1978 Kurdish students would form the militant separatist organization PKK, also known as the Kurdistan Workers’ Party in English. The Kurdistan Workers’ Party later abandoned Marxism-Leninism.^[165]
【参考译文】在20世纪50年代土耳其相对开放的政府期间，库尔德人获得了政治职位，并开始在土耳其共和国的框架内工作，以推进自身利益，但这一融合进程在1960年土耳其政变中被打断。[159]20世纪70年代，库尔德民族主义发生了变化，一些受马克思主义政治思潮影响的库尔德民族主义者新生代反对当地的封建势力，而封建势力一直是反对权威的传统力量；1978年，库尔德学生会成立了激进的分离主义组织库尔德工人党（PKK），其英文全称为 Kurdistan Workers’ Party。后来，库尔德工人党放弃了马克思列宁主义。[165]

Kurds are often regarded as “the largest ethnic group without a state“,^{[166][167][168][169][170][171]} Some researchers, such as Martin van Bruinessen,^[172] who seem to agree with the official Turkish position, argue that while some level of Kurdish cultural, social, political and ideological heterogeneity may exist, the Kurdish community has long thrived over the centuries as a generally peaceful and well-integrated part of Turkish society, with hostilities erupting only in recent years.^{[173][174][175]} Michael Radu, who worked for the United States’ Pennsylvania Foreign Policy Research Institute, notes that demands for a Kurdish state comes primarily from Kurdish nationalists, Western human-rights activists, and European leftists.^[173]
【参考译文】库尔德人通常被视为“没有国家的最大族群”，[166][167][168][169][170][171]一些研究人员，如马丁·范·布鲁尼森，[172]似乎赞同土耳其官方的立场，认为尽管库尔德人在文化、社会、政治和意识形态上可能存在一定的差异性，但库尔德族群数百年来一直蓬勃发展，作为土耳其社会一个总体和平且融合良好的部分，只是在近几年才爆发敌对冲突。[173][174][175]曾为美国宾夕法尼亚外交政策研究所工作的迈克尔·拉杜指出，对库尔德国家的要求主要来自库尔德民族主义者、西方人权活动家和欧洲左翼人士。[173]

6. 库尔德社群 | Kurdish communities

Further information: Kurdistan and Kurdish refugees【更多信息：库尔德斯坦与库尔德难民】

6.1 土耳其 | Turkey

Main articles: Kurds in Turkey, Kurds of Central Anatolia, Turkish Kurdistan, Human rights in Turkey, Kurdistan Workers Party, and Human rights of Kurdish people in Turkey
【主条目：土耳其的库尔德人、中安纳托利亚的库尔德人、土耳其库尔德斯坦、土耳其人权状况、库尔德工人党和土耳其库尔德人的人权】

According to CIA Factbook, Kurds formed approximately 18% of the population in Turkey (approximately 14 million) in 2008. One Western source estimates that up to 25% of the Turkish population is Kurdish (approximately 18–19 million people).^[57] Kurdish sources claim there are as many as 20 or 25 million Kurds in Turkey.^[176] In 1980, Ethnologue estimated the number of Kurdish-speakers in Turkey at around five million,^[177] when the country’s population stood at 44 million.^[178] Kurds form the largest minority group in Turkey, and they have posed the most serious and persistent challenge to the official image of a homogeneous society. To deny an existence of Kurds, the Turkish Government used several terms. “Mountain Turks” was a term was initially used by Abdullah Alpdoğan [tr]. In 1961, in a foreword to the book Doğu İlleri ve Varto Tarihi of Mehmet Şerif Fırat, the Turkish president Cemal Gürsel declared it of utmost importance to prove the Turkishness of the Kurds.^[179] Eastern Turk was another euphemism for Kurds from 1980 onwards.^[180] Nowadays the Kurds, in Turkey, are still known under the name Easterner (Doğulu).
【参考译文】根据美国中央情报局《世界概况》的数据，2008年，库尔德人约占土耳其人口的18%（约1400万）。一个西方消息来源估计，土耳其人口中高达25%为库尔德人（约1800万至1900万人）。[57]库尔德消息来源则声称，土耳其有2000万至2500万库尔德人。[176]1980年，《民族语》估计土耳其的库尔德语使用者约为500万人，[177]当时土耳其的总人口为4400万。[178]库尔德人是土耳其最大的少数民族群体，他们对土耳其官方塑造的单一民族社会形象构成了最严重且持久的挑战。为否认库尔德人的存在，土耳其政府使用了多个术语。“山地土耳其人”这一术语最初由阿卜杜拉·阿尔普多甘使用。[tr]1961年，在穆罕默德·谢里夫·菲拉特的著作《多古勒伊尔和瓦尔托历史》的前言中，土耳其总统杰马尔·古尔塞尔宣称，证明库尔德人的土耳其属性至关重要。[179]从1980年开始，“东土耳其人”成为库尔德人的另一个委婉说法。[180]如今，在土耳其，库尔德人仍被称为“东方人”（Doğulu）。

一战结束后，奥斯曼帝国与列强于1920年8月10日签订了《色佛尔条约》，此条约属于1919年巴黎和会系列条约的一部分。内容主要为削弱奥图曼帝国的领土及国力，防止它再发动对外扩张的战争。条约中允诺库尔德斯坦为自治区，并将举行公投以决定是否成为独立国家。^[12]

该条约被普遍认为是侧重协约国（尤其是英国、希腊和亚美尼亚等国）的利益，而对奥斯曼帝国和土耳其人十分苛刻。由凯末尔率领的土耳其民族主义者并不接受这个条约，于1920年4月23日在安卡拉成立了土耳其大国民议会。议会认为《色佛尔条约》损害土耳其人利益和主权，对之不予承认，并与依据条约占领小亚细亚的亚美尼亚、希腊和法国军队战斗，是为土耳其独立战争。战后，土耳其于1923年7月24日与协约国签订《洛桑条约》。

在实质上建立起土耳其现代国家的《洛桑条约》中，库尔德人是一个少数民族，权利没有得到任何保证，这一点是库尔德族人和南斯拉夫人、犹太人以及亚美尼亚人不同的地方。虽然土耳其东部地区很多人，尤其是女性，都以库尔德人的Kurmanci语（此处指北库尔德语: 土耳其地区库尔德人所说之库尔德语腔调；另有南库尔德语，主要指伊拉克地区的库尔德语腔调）作为第一语言，对土耳其语的掌握非常有限；但直到最近，土耳其政府还是不承认库尔德族人的存在。在土耳其的人口调查中，政府仍然不准任何人把自己归为库尔德人，也不以库尔德人来称呼他们。身份证上亦不允许“库尔德人”字样出现。

1925年以后，土耳其政府对库尔德人的政策逐渐从初期软硬兼施、保持模糊空间的态度一步步转变为压制库尔德人文化。1925到1938年间，土耳其国内的库尔德人在凯末尔高压统治下多次发起暴动，主要范围在土耳其东部的安那托利亚地区，而土耳其政府将这些暴动定义为“国内反动势力／革命势力的反动”，对于库尔德人一字不提，企图塑造土耳其做为单一民族国家的假象。

1925年，由赛德（Sheikh Said）为首的库尔德人反土耳其高压统治运动开始了这一连串暴动，赛德起义造成1927-1930年间土耳其空军对亚拉拉特山地区的轰炸，酿成了1930年的亚拉拉特起义。更为血腥的暴动发生在1937年的德锡门地区，当地居民在1937-1938年间遭到土耳其政府的驱离，为了自我保护而发生暴动，在当地领袖写给国际联盟秘书长信件中揭露了土耳其政府的压迫暴行，其中提到“剥夺库尔德儿童的受教权、强迫库尔德人成为奴工、驱离库尔德人，并借由‘土耳其化’的手段试图消灭库尔德人”。而作为回应，土耳其政府选择更加密集的空军轰炸。据统计，土耳其军在短短17天内就歼灭了8,000多位库尔德人。

库尔德人一次又一次的反抗无法扭转土耳其政府全面否定其存在的政策，到了1983年，库尔德语遭到了全面禁止。土耳其语被定为唯一官方语言的结果并不止于文化权语言权的打压。当所有有关库尔德人权益的政府公告都只以土耳其语发布时，原本属于库尔德人的土地渐渐从库尔德人人手中转入土耳其人手里。土耳其人开始在政府的提倡下有系统地移居至传统库尔德人区域，而库尔德人人则被赶出居住了数千年的土地。

Several large scale Kurdish revolts in 1925, 1930 and 1938 were suppressed by the Turkish government and more than one million Kurds were forcibly relocated between 1925 and 1938. The use of Kurdish language, dress, folklore, and names were banned and the Kurdish-inhabited areas remained under martial law until 1946.^[181] The Ararat revolt, which reached its apex in 1930, was only suppressed after a massive military campaign including destruction of many villages and their populations.^[182] By the 1970s, Kurdish leftist organizations such as Kurdistan Socialist Party-Turkey (KSP-T) emerged in Turkey which were against violence and supported civil activities and participation in elections. In 1977, Mehdi Zana a supporter of KSP-T won the mayoralty of Diyarbakir in the local elections. At about the same time, generational fissures gave birth to two new organizations: the National Liberation of Kurdistan and the Kurdistan Workers Party.^[183]
【参考译文】1925年、1930年和1938年发生的几次大规模库尔德人起义均被土耳其政府镇压，1925年至1938年间，超过100万库尔德人被强行迁移。库尔德语、服饰、民俗和姓名被禁止使用，库尔德人居住的地区直到1946年都处于军事管制之下。[181]1930年达到高潮的阿拉拉特起义，是在包括摧毁许多村庄及其居民在内的大规模军事行动后才被镇压下去的。[182]到了20世纪70年代，土耳其出现了反对暴力、支持公民活动和参与选举的库尔德左翼组织，如土耳其库尔德社会主义党（KSP-T）。1977年，在地方选举中，KSP-T的支持者梅赫迪·扎纳当选为迪亚巴克尔市长。大约在同一时期，代际分裂催生了两个新组织：库尔德斯坦民族解放阵线和库尔德工人党。[183]

The words “Kurds”, “Kurdistan“, or “Kurdish” were officially banned by the Turkish government.^[184] Following the military coup of 1980, the Kurdish language was officially prohibited in public and private life.^[185] Many people who spoke, published, or sang in Kurdish were arrested and imprisoned.^[186] The Kurds are still not allowed to get a primary education in their mother tongue and they do not have a right to self-determination, even though Turkey has signed the ICCPR. There is ongoing discrimination against and “otherization” of Kurds in society.^[187]
【参考译文】土耳其政府曾正式禁止使用“库尔德人”、“库尔德斯坦”或“库尔德”等词语。[184]1980年军事政变后，库尔德语在公共和私人生活中被正式禁止。[185]许多说库尔德语、出版库尔德语材料或用库尔德语唱歌的人被逮捕并监禁。[186]尽管土耳其签署了《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》，但库尔德人仍然不被允许用母语接受初等教育，也没有自决权。社会上对库尔德人持续存在歧视和“他者化”现象。[187]

1984年，阿卜杜拉·厄贾兰建立了库尔德斯坦工人党（PKK）。创党初期，以为农工阶级谋福利为宗旨的库尔德工人党并未凸显库尔德人认同，反而一度与土耳其政府关系良好。

The Kurdistan Workers’ Party or PKK (Kurdish: Partiya Karkerên Kurdistanê) is Kurdish militant organization which has waged an armed struggle against the Turkish state for cultural and political rights and self-determination for the Kurds. Turkey‘s military allies the US, the EU, and NATO label the PKK as a terrorist organization while the UN,^[188] Switzerland,^[189] and Russia^[190] have refused to add the PKK to their terrorist list.^[191] Some of them have even supported the PKK.^[192]
【参考译文】库尔德斯坦工人党（PKK，库尔德语：Partiya Karkerên Kurdistanî）是一个库尔德武装组织，为争取库尔德人的文化、政治权利和自决权而与土耳其国家进行武装斗争。土耳其的军事盟友美国、欧盟和北约将PKK列为恐怖组织，而联合国、[188]瑞士、[189]和俄罗斯[190]则拒绝将PKK列入其恐怖组织名单。[191]其中一些国家甚至支持PKK。[192]

1982年土耳其建立了新的宪法，在宪法的第26及28章中，对库尔德人的认定采用了较严苛的标准。与此同时，这项粗暴的政策也增进了受政治迫害而流亡至叙利亚的库尔德斯坦工人党的支持度。 虽然土耳其军方非常担心安多利亚东南方的库尔德势力，但是总理Turgut Ozal 认为有必要趁着库尔德斯坦工人党的没落与国内库尔德人开启谈判。1992年，他建议国家电视网络应该至少拨放60至90分钟的库尔德语节目，并且将库尔德语订为第二官方语言；然而国会内的军方势力在安全的考量下否定了这个想法。Turgut Ozal 的继任者Tansu Ciller 上台后情况持续恶化，因为他给予军方极大的政治及金融上的支助，激化了土耳其军库尔德斯坦工人党的军事行动。此外，另一个好战的伊斯兰政党也在东南方兴起了－也就是1999年成立的新库尔德斯坦人民民主党(new Kurdish People’s Democracy Party, PDP)，同年也举行了赫尔辛基高峰会，土耳其成为欧盟的候选国，新的执政党－民主人民党决定废除死刑并且给予库尔德人有限的文化权利。

Between 1984 and 1999, the PKK and the Turkish military engaged in open war, and much of the countryside in the southeast was depopulated, as Kurdish civilians moved from villages to bigger cities such as Diyarbakır, Van, and Şırnak, as well as to the cities of western Turkey and even to western Europe. The causes of the depopulation included mainly the Turkish state’s military operations, state’s political actions, Turkish deep state actions, the poverty of the southeast and PKK atrocities against Kurdish clans which were against them.^[193] Turkish state actions have included torture, rape,^[194][195] forced inscription, forced evacuation, destruction of villages, illegal arrests and executions of Kurdish civilians.^[196][197]
【参考译文】1984年至1999年间，PKK与土耳其军队进行了公开战争，东南部大片农村人口流失，库尔德平民从村庄迁移到迪亚巴克尔、凡城和锡尔纳克等大城市，以及土耳其西部城市，甚至西欧。导致人口流失的原因主要包括土耳其国家的军事行动、政治行动、土耳其深层国家行动、东南部地区的贫困以及PKK对反对他们的库尔德部落的暴行。[193]土耳其国家的行动包括酷刑、强奸、[194][195]强迫登记、强迫疏散、摧毁村庄、非法逮捕和处决库尔德平民。[196][197]

Since the 1970s, the European Court of Human Rights has condemned Turkey for the thousands of human rights abuses.^[197][198] The judgments are related to executions of Kurdish civilians,^[199] torturing,^[200] forced displacements^[201] systematic destruction of villages,^[202] arbitrary arrests^[203] murdered and disappeared Kurdish journalists.^[204]
【参考译文】自20世纪70年代以来，欧洲人权法院已数千次谴责土耳其侵犯人权的行为。[197][198]这些判决涉及处决库尔德平民、[199]酷刑、[200]强迫流离失所、[201]系统性摧毁村庄、[202]任意逮捕、[203]谋杀和失踪的库尔德记者。[204]

Leyla Zana, the first Kurdish female MP from Diyarbakir, caused an uproar in Turkish Parliament after adding the following sentence in Kurdish to her parliamentary oath during the swearing-in ceremony in 1994: “I take this oath for the brotherhood of the Turkish and Kurdish peoples.”^[205]
【参考译文】来自迪亚巴克尔的第一位库尔德裔女性议员莱拉·扎纳，在1994年的宣誓就职仪式上，向议会宣誓时加入了以下这句库尔德语，从而在土耳其议会中引发了轩然大波：“我以此誓言捍卫土耳其与库尔德人民的兄弟情谊。”[205]

In March 1994, the Turkish Parliament voted to lift the immunity of Zana and five other Kurdish DEP members: Hatip Dicle, Ahmet Turk, Sirri Sakik, Orhan Dogan and Selim Sadak. Zana, Dicle, Sadak and Dogan were sentenced to 15 years in jail by the Supreme Court in October 1995. Zana was awarded the Sakharov Prize for human rights by the European Parliament in 1995. She was released in 2004 amid warnings from European institutions that the continued imprisonment of the four Kurdish MPs would affect Turkey’s bid to join the EU.^[206][207] The 2009 local elections resulted in 5.7% for Kurdish political party DTP.^[208]
【参考译文】1994年3月，土耳其议会投票决定剥夺扎纳和其他五名库尔德民主党（DEP）成员——哈提卜·迪莱克、艾哈迈德·图尔克、西里·萨奇克、奥尔汗·多甘和塞利姆·萨达克——的豁免权。1995年10月，扎纳、迪莱克、萨达克和多甘被最高法院判处15年监禁。1995年，扎纳被欧洲议会授予萨哈罗夫人权奖。2004年，在欧洲机构警告继续监禁这四名库尔德议员将影响土耳其加入欧盟的申请后，扎纳获释。[206][207]2009年的地方选举中，库尔德政党民主社会党（DTP）获得了5.7%的选票。[208]

Officially protected death squads are accused of the disappearance of 3,200 Kurds and Assyrians in 1993 and 1994 in the so-called “mystery killings”. Kurdish politicians, human-rights activists, journalists, teachers and other members of intelligentsia were among the victims. Virtually none of the perpetrators were investigated nor punished. Turkish government also encouraged Islamic extremist group Kurdish Hezbollah to assassinate suspected PKK members and often ordinary Kurds.^[209] Azimet Köylüoğlu, the state minister of human rights, revealed the extent of security forces’ excesses in autumn 1994: While acts of terrorism in other regions are done by the PKK; in Tunceli it is state terrorism. In Tunceli, it is the state that is evacuating and burning villages. In the southeast there are two million people left homeless.^[210]
【参考译文】官方保护的死亡小队被指控在1993年和1994年的所谓“神秘杀戮”中导致3200名库尔德人和亚述人失踪。受害者中包括库尔德政治家、人权活动家、记者、教师和其他知识分子。实际上，肇事者几乎没有受到任何调查或惩罚。土耳其政府还鼓励伊斯兰极端组织库尔德真主党暗杀疑似PKK成员，甚至常常杀害普通的库尔德人。[209]1994年秋，国家人权部长阿齐迈特·科尤洛格鲁揭露了安全部队过度行为的程度：在其他地区，恐怖行为是由PKK实施的；而在通杰利省，则是国家恐怖主义。在通杰利省，是国家在疏散和焚烧村庄。东南部有两百万人因此流离失所。[210]

促进这种改变进一步加快的最好机会就是土耳其申请加入欧盟。为了获得批准，土耳其不得不开始尊重少数民族的文化和民族权利。2002年，土耳其政府允许用库尔德语言广播，然后又进一步同意在语言学校里教授库尔德语。东南部的紧急状态被解除。政府补偿在冲突中被迫迁移的农民。很多库尔德族人对于在伊拉克北部边境，正发展出一个准独立（quasi-independent）的库尔德人国家的进程感到高兴。

不过，虽然目前^[何时？]形势的发展令人乐观，一些库尔德人激进主义者认为现有的改革远远不够。2004年6月，停火状态也被打破，在东南部地区不时发生小规模战斗。而近期^[何时？]发生在安卡拉的爆炸事件也被认为再次恶化两方的关系。

6.2 伊朗 | Iran

Main articles: Kurds in Iran, Kurds of Khorasan, Iranian Kurdistan, and History of the Kurds
【主条目：伊朗库尔德人、呼罗珊库尔德人、伊朗库尔德斯坦和库尔德人历史】

The Kurdish region of Iran has been a part of the country since ancient times. Nearly all Kurdistan was part of Persian Empire until its Western part was lost during wars against the Ottoman Empire.^[211] Following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 Tehran had demanded all lost territories including Turkish Kurdistan, Mosul, and even Diyarbakır, but demands were quickly rejected by Western powers.^[212] This area has been divided by modern Turkey, Syria and Iraq.^[213] Today, the Kurds inhabit mostly northwestern territories known as Iranian Kurdistan but also the northeastern region of Khorasan, and constitute approximately 7–10%^[214] of Iran’s overall population (6.5–7.9 million), compared to 10.6% (2 million) in 1956 and 8% (800,000) in 1850.^[215]
【参考译文】伊朗的库尔德地区自古以来就是该国的一部分。几乎整个库尔德斯坦都曾是波斯帝国的一部分，直到其西部地区在与奥斯曼帝国的战争中失守。[211]奥斯曼帝国解体后，在1919年的巴黎和会上，德黑兰要求收回所有失地，包括土耳其库尔德斯坦、摩苏尔，甚至迪亚巴克尔，但这些要求很快被西方列强拒绝。[212]该地区现已被现代土耳其、叙利亚和伊拉克分割。[213]如今，库尔德人主要居住在被称为伊朗库尔德斯坦的西北地区，但也居住在东北部的呼罗珊地区，约占伊朗总人口的7–10%（650万至790万人），相比之下，1956年这一比例为10.6%（200万人），1850年则为8%（80万人）。[215]

Unlike in other Kurdish-populated countries, there are strong ethnolinguistical and cultural ties between Kurds, Persians and others as Iranian peoples.^[214] Some modern Iranian dynasties like the Safavids and Zands are considered to be partly of Kurdish origin. Kurdish literature in all of its forms (Kurmanji, Sorani, and Gorani) has been developed within historical Iranian boundaries under strong influence of the Persian language.^[213] The Kurds sharing much of their history with the rest of Iran is seen as reason for why Kurdish leaders in Iran do not want a separate Kurdish state.^{[214][216][217]}
【参考译文】与其他库尔德人聚居的国家不同，伊朗的库尔德人、波斯人和其他伊朗民族之间存在着强烈的民族语言和文化联系。[214]一些现代伊朗王朝，如萨法维王朝和赞德王朝，被认为部分具有库尔德血统。库尔德文学（包括库尔曼吉语、索拉尼语和戈兰尼语）在伊朗历史边界内得到发展，并深受波斯语的影响。[213]库尔德人与伊朗其他地区共享大部分历史，这被认为是伊朗库尔德领导人不想建立单独的库尔德国家的原因。[214][216][217]

The government of Iran has never employed the same level of brutality against its own Kurds like Turkey or Iraq, but it has always been implacably opposed to any suggestion of Kurdish separatism.^[214] During and shortly after the First World War the government of Iran was ineffective and had very little control over events in the country and several Kurdish tribal chiefs gained local political power, even established large confederations.^[216] At the same time waves of nationalism from the disintegrating Ottoman Empire partly influenced some Kurdish chiefs in border regions to pose as Kurdish nationalist leaders.^[216] Prior to this, identity in both countries largely relied upon religion i.e. Shia Islam in the particular case of Iran.^[217][218] In 19th-century Iran, Shia–Sunni animosity and the describing of Sunni Kurds as an Ottoman fifth column was quite frequent.^[219]
【参考译文】伊朗政府从未像土耳其或伊拉克那样对其境内的库尔德人实施同等程度的暴行，但它一直坚决反对任何库尔德分裂主义的提议。[214]第一次世界大战期间和战后不久，伊朗政府软弱无力，对国内事务的控制力很小，一些库尔德部落酋长获得了当地政治权力，甚至建立了庞大的联盟。[216]与此同时，解体中的奥斯曼帝国兴起的民族主义浪潮部分影响了边境地区的一些库尔德酋长，他们伪装成库尔德民族主义领导人。[216]在此之前，两国的认同在很大程度上依赖于宗教，特别是伊朗的什叶派伊斯兰。[217][218]19世纪的伊朗，什叶派与逊尼派的敌意以及将逊尼派库尔德人描述为奥斯曼帝国的第五纵队的情况相当普遍。[219]

而伊朗政府和非库尔德人的伊朗民众并不是这场攻击的唯一受害者，也有库尔德人人在这场叛乱下受到伤害。^[14][15]这场叛乱并没有任何库尔德人团结一致的迹象。^[14]1920年代晚期的库尔德人暴动常伴随着伊朗与土耳其间的紧张关系，伊朗与土耳其把库尔德人当成政治工具：土耳其提供军事协助与避难场所给1918~1922年的辛库‧席卡克反伊朗叛乱^[16]，而伊朗也在1930年的亚拉拉特叛变时用同样的方式对待土耳其。^[15]

During the late 1910s and early 1920s, tribal revolt led by Kurdish chieftain Simko Shikak struck north western Iran. Although elements of Kurdish nationalism were present in this movement, historians agree these were hardly articulate enough to justify a claim that recognition of Kurdish identity was a major issue in Simko’s movement, and he had to rely heavily on conventional tribal motives.^[216] Government forces and non-Kurds were not the only ones to suffer in the attacks, the Kurdish population was also robbed and assaulted.^[216][220]
【参考译文】20世纪10年代末至20年代初，由库尔德酋长西姆科·希卡克领导的部落叛乱袭击了伊朗西北部。尽管这场运动中存在库尔德民族主义的元素，但历史学家一致认为，这些元素很难明确表达，因此不能证明承认库尔德人身份是西姆科运动中的重大问题，他不得不大量依靠传统的部落动机。[216]在这次袭击中，不仅政府军和非库尔德人受害，库尔德人也遭到了抢劫和袭击。[216][220]

Rebels do not appear to have felt any sense of unity or solidarity with fellow Kurds.^[216] Kurdish insurgency and seasonal migrations in the late 1920s, along with long-running tensions between Tehran and Ankara, resulted in border clashes and even military penetrations in both Iranian and Turkish territory.^[212] Two regional powers have used Kurdish tribes as tool for own political benefits: Turkey has provided military help and refuge for anti-Iranian Turcophone Shikak rebels in 1918–1922,^[221] while Iran did the same during Ararat rebellion against Turkey in 1930. Reza Shah‘s military victory over Kurdish and Turkic tribal leaders initiated a repressive era toward non-Iranian minorities.^[220] Government’s forced detribalization and sedentarization in 1920s and 1930s resulted with many other tribal revolts in Iranian regions of Azerbaijan, Luristan and Kurdistan.^[222] In particular case of the Kurds, this repressive policies partly contributed to developing nationalism among some tribes.^[216]
【参考译文】叛乱者似乎并没有与同胞库尔德人产生任何团结或同仇敌忾的感觉。[216]20世纪20年代末的库尔德叛乱和季节性迁徙，以及德黑兰和安卡拉之间长期存在的紧张关系，导致了边境冲突，甚至军事力量渗透到伊朗和土耳其领土。[212]两个地区大国都曾利用库尔德部落作为实现自己政治利益的工具：1918年至1922年间，土耳其为反伊朗的突厥语希卡克叛军提供军事援助和庇护，[221]而伊朗在1930年阿拉拉特反对土耳其的叛乱期间也做了同样的事情。礼萨·沙阿对库尔德和突厥部落首领的军事胜利，开启了针对非伊朗少数民族的镇压时代。[220]20世纪20年代和30年代，政府的强制去部落化和定居化政策导致伊朗阿塞拜疆、卢里斯坦和库尔德斯坦地区发生了多起其他部落叛乱。[222]就库尔德人而言，这种镇压政策部分助长了某些部落中的民族主义情绪。[216]

As a response to growing Pan-Turkism and Pan-Arabism in region which were seen as potential threats to the territorial integrity of Iran, Pan-Iranist ideology has been developed in the early 1920s.^[218] Some of such groups and journals openly advocated Iranian support to the Kurdish rebellion against Turkey.^[223] Secular Pahlavi dynasty has endorsed Iranian ethnic nationalism^[218] which saw the Kurds as integral part of the Iranian nation.^[217] Mohammad Reza Pahlavi has personally praised the Kurds as “pure Iranians” or “one of the most noble Iranian peoples“. Another significant ideology during this period was Marxism which arose among Kurds under influence of USSR. It culminated in the Iran crisis of 1946 which included a separatist attempt of KDP-I and communist groups^[224] to establish the Soviet puppet government^{[225][226][227]} called Republic of Mahabad. It arose along with Azerbaijan People’s Government, another Soviet puppet state.^[214][228] The state itself encompassed a very small territory, including Mahabad and the adjacent cities, unable to incorporate the southern Iranian Kurdistan which fell inside the Anglo-American zone, and unable to attract the tribes outside Mahabad itself to the nationalist cause.^[214] As a result, when the Soviets withdrew from Iran in December 1946, government forces were able to enter Mahabad unopposed.^[214]
【参考译文】20世纪20年代初，针对地区内日益增长的泛突厥主义和泛阿拉伯主义思潮，这些思潮被视为对伊朗领土完整的潜在威胁，泛伊朗主义思想应运而生。[218]一些团体和期刊公然主张伊朗支持库尔德人反抗土耳其的起义。[223]世俗的巴列维王朝支持伊朗的民族主义[218]，认为库尔德人是伊朗民族不可分割的一部分。[217]穆罕默德·礼萨·巴列维亲自称赞库尔德人为“纯粹的伊朗人”或“伊朗最高贵的民族之一”。这一时期另一种重要的思潮是马克思主义，它在苏联的影响下在库尔德人中兴起。这最终导致了1946年的伊朗危机，其中包括库尔德民主党（伊朗）（KDP-I）和共产主义团体试图建立苏联傀儡政府[224]——马哈巴德共和国[225][226][227]。这个政权与另一个苏联傀儡政权——阿塞拜疆人民共和国同时出现。[214][228]该政权控制的领土范围非常小，仅包括马哈巴德及其周边城市，既无法将位于英美占领区的伊朗南部库尔德斯坦纳入其中，也无法将马哈巴德以外的部落吸引到民族主义事业中来。[214]因此，当苏联于1946年12月从伊朗撤军时，政府军队得以顺利进入马哈巴德，未遇抵抗。[214]

Several nationalist and Marxist insurgencies continued for decades (1967, 1979, 1989–96) led by KDP-I and Komalah, but those two organization have never advocated a separate Kurdish state or greater Kurdistan as did the PKK in Turkey.^{[216][229][230][231]} Still, many of dissident leaders, among others Qazi Muhammad and Abdul Rahman Ghassemlou, were executed or assassinated.^[214] During Iran–Iraq War, Tehran has provided support for Iraqi-based Kurdish groups like KDP or PUK, along with asylum for 1.4 million Iraqi refugees, mostly Kurds. Kurdish Marxist groups have been marginalized in Iran since the dissolution of the Soviet Union. In 2004 new insurrection started by PJAK, separatist organization affiliated with the Turkey-based PKK^[232] and designated as terrorist by Iran, Turkey and the United States.^[232] Some analysts claim PJAK do not pose any serious threat to the government of Iran.^[233] Cease-fire has been established in September 2011 following the Iranian offensive on PJAK bases, but several clashes between PJAK and IRGC took place after it.^[174] Since the Iranian Revolution of 1979, accusations of “discrimination” by Western organizations and of “foreign involvement” by Iranian side have become very frequent.^[174]
【参考译文】由库尔德民主党（伊朗）（KDP-I）和库尔德斯坦自由生命党（Komalah）领导的民族主义和马克思主义叛乱活动持续了数十年（1967年、1979年、1989-1996年），但这两个组织从未像土耳其的库尔德工人党（PKK）那样主张建立独立的库尔德国家或更大的库尔德斯坦。[216][229][230][231]然而，许多持不同政见的领导人，包括卡西·穆罕默德和阿卜杜勒·拉赫曼·加斯姆卢等，仍被处决或暗杀。[214]在伊朗-伊拉克战争期间，德黑兰为伊拉克境内的库尔德团体如库尔德民主党（KDP）或爱国联盟（PUK）提供支持，并为140万伊拉克难民提供庇护，其中大多数是库尔德人。自苏联解体以来，伊朗境内的库尔德马克思主义团体已被边缘化。2004年，与土耳其的库尔德工人党（PKK）有关联的分离主义组织库尔德自由党（PJAK）发动了新的叛乱，并被伊朗、土耳其和美国指定为恐怖组织。[232]一些分析人士认为，PJAK并未对伊朗政府构成严重威胁。[233]在伊朗对PJAK基地发动攻势后，双方于2011年9月达成停火协议，但此后PJAK与伊朗伊斯兰革命卫队（IRGC）之间仍发生了数次冲突。[174]自1979年伊朗革命以来，西方组织指责伊朗“歧视”，而伊朗方面则指责“外国干涉”，这样的指责变得非常频繁。[174]

在这时期苏联的马克思主义也影响了库尔德人，并在1946年伊朗危机中促进分离运动，当时伊朗库尔德民主党（KDP-I）与共产主义团体有意建立一个叫马哈巴德共和国苏维埃傀儡政府，此傀儡政府将与另一个傀儡政府阿塞拜疆人民政府一起建立。^{[19][20][21][22][23]}但马哈巴德共和国领土很小，只包含马哈巴德与周边的城市，不足以与南边英美区的库尔德人合并，其民族目的也没办法吸引其他的部落。结果，当1946年12月苏维埃撤出伊朗时，伊朗政府便毫无阻碍的铲除这个傀儡政府。^[13]

Kurds have been well integrated in Iranian political life during reign of various governments.^[216] Kurdish liberal political Karim Sanjabi has served as minister of education under Mohammad Mossadegh in 1952. During the reign of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi some members of parliament and high army officers were Kurds, and there was even a Kurdish Cabinet Minister.^[216] During the reign of the Pahlavis Kurds received many favours from the authorities, for instance to keep their land after the land reforms of 1962.^[216] In the early 2000s, presence of thirty Kurdish deputies in the 290-strong parliament has also helped to undermine claims of discrimination.^[234] Some of the more influential Kurdish politicians during recent years include former first vice president Mohammad Reza Rahimi and Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf, Mayor of Tehran and second-placed presidential candidate in 2013. Kurdish language is today used more than at any other time since the Revolution, including in several newspapers and among schoolchildren.^[234] Many Iranian Kurds show no interest in Kurdish nationalism,^[214] particularly Kurds of the Shia faith who sometimes even vigorously reject idea of autonomy, preferring direct rule from Tehran.^[214][229] The issue of Kurdish nationalism and Iranian national identity is generally only questioned in the peripheral Kurdish dominated regions where the Sunni faith is prevalent.^[235]
【参考译文】在历届政府的统治下，库尔德人已很好地融入了伊朗的政治生活。[216]库尔德自由派政治家卡里姆·桑贾比在1952年穆罕默德·摩萨台执政期间担任过教育部长。在穆罕默德·礼萨·巴列维统治期间，一些议会成员和高级军官是库尔德人，甚至还有一位库尔德内阁部长。[216]在巴列维王朝的统治下，库尔德人得到了当局的许多优待，例如在1962年的土地改革中得以保留自己的土地。[216]21世纪初，在290名议员的议会中有30名库尔德议员，这也有助于削弱有关歧视的指控。[234]近年来一些较有影响力的库尔德政治家包括前第一副总统穆罕默德·礼萨·拉希米，以及德黑兰市长、2013年总统选举第二名候选人穆罕默德·巴格赫尔·加利巴夫。自革命以来，库尔德语的使用比以往任何时候都要广泛，包括在几家报纸和小学生中。[234]许多伊朗库尔德人对库尔德民族主义不感兴趣，[214]特别是什叶派的库尔德人，他们有时甚至强烈反对自治的主张，更愿意接受德黑兰的直接统治。[214][229]库尔德民族主义与伊朗民族身份的问题通常只在库尔德人占主导地位且盛行逊尼派信仰的周边地区受到质疑。[235]

自从1979年伊朗革命以来，伊朗经常面对歧视库尔德人的指控。但库尔德人人其实在伊朗各时期的政府执政时都有参与其中，例如库尔德自由主义政治家卡林姆‧簪加败就在1952年在摩萨台内阁中担任教育部长。在礼萨汗当政时期，一些国会成员和军队官员就都是库尔德人人，甚至有库尔德人的内阁部长。^[14][18]在巴列维王朝时期，库尔德人收到许多来自当权者的帮助，例如在1962年领土重编时保留库尔德人的土地。^[29]在2000年初期，伊朗议会中的库尔德人议员也占了一定的比例，逐渐削弱歧视的主张。重要的政治家如前第一副总统礼萨‧拉希米和德黑兰市长巴吉尔‧卡利巴夫（在2013年总统大选选票位居第二名）也活跃于现今伊朗政坛。而库尔德人的语言在现在伊朗境内没有受到太大的限制，一些报纸使用库尔德人语，甚至在有些学校教导小孩库尔德语。就目前情况而言，大多数的伊朗库尔德人人对库尔德民族主义并不是太执著。^[29]

6.3 伊拉克 | Iraq

Further information: Kurds in Iraq; Iraqi Kurdistan; Al-Anfal genocide; Halabja poison gas attack; and Iraqi Kurdistan independence referendum, 2017
【更多信息：伊拉克的库尔德人；伊拉克库尔德斯坦；阿尔-安法尔灭绝种族事件；哈拉卜贾毒气袭击事件；以及2017年伊拉克库尔德斯坦独立公投】

Kurds constitute approximately 17% of Iraq’s population.^{[citation needed]} They are the majority in at least three provinces in northern Iraq. Kurds also have a presence in Kirkuk, Mosul, Khanaqin, and Baghdad. Around 300,000 Kurds live in the Iraqi capital Baghdad, 50,000 in the city of Mosul and around 100,000 elsewhere in southern Iraq.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】库尔德人约占伊拉克人口的17%。[需要引文]他们是伊拉克北部至少三个省的大多数族群。库尔德人在基尔库克、摩苏尔、哈纳金和巴格达也有分布。约有30万库尔德人居住在伊拉克首都巴格达，5万居住在摩苏尔，另有约10万居住在伊拉克南部的其他地方。[需要引文]

Kurds led by Mustafa Barzani were engaged in heavy fighting against successive Iraqi regimes from 1960 to 1975. In March 1970, Iraq announced a peace plan providing for Kurdish autonomy. The plan was to be implemented in four years.^[236] However, at the same time, the Iraqi regime started an Arabization program in the oil-rich regions of Kirkuk and Khanaqin.^[237] The peace agreement did not last long, and in 1974, the Iraqi government began a new offensive against the Kurds. Moreover, in March 1975, Iraq and Iran signed the Algiers Accord, according to which Iran cut supplies to Iraqi Kurds. Iraq started another wave of Arabization by moving Arabs to the oil fields in Kurdistan, particularly those around Kirkuk.^[238] Between 1975 and 1978, 200,000 Kurds were deported to other parts of Iraq.^[239]
【参考译文】1960年至1975年间，由穆斯塔法·巴尔扎尼领导的库尔德人与伊拉克历届政权展开了激烈的战斗。1970年3月，伊拉克宣布了一项和平计划，为库尔德人提供自治。该计划将在四年内实施。[236]然而，与此同时，伊拉克政权在石油资源丰富的基尔库克和哈纳金地区启动了阿拉伯化计划。[237]和平协议并未持续太久，1974年，伊拉克政府开始对库尔德人发动新一轮攻势。此外，1975年3月，伊拉克和伊朗签署了《阿尔及尔协议》，根据该协议，伊朗切断了对伊拉克库尔德人的物资供应。伊拉克通过将阿拉伯人迁移到库尔德斯坦的油田，特别是基尔库克周边的油田，开始了另一波阿拉伯化。[238]1975年至1978年间，有20万库尔德人被驱逐到伊拉克其他地区。[239]

During the Iran–Iraq War in the 1980s, the regime implemented anti-Kurdish policies and a de facto civil war broke out. Iraq was widely condemned by the international community, but was never seriously punished for oppressive measures such as the mass murder of hundreds of thousands of civilians, the wholesale destruction of thousands of villages and the deportation of thousands of Kurds to southern and central Iraq.
【参考译文】20世纪80年代的两伊战争期间，伊拉克政权实施了反库尔德政策，实际上引发了一场内战。伊拉克因此受到了国际社会的广泛谴责，但该国大规模屠杀数十万平民、摧毁数千个村庄以及将数千名库尔德人驱逐到伊拉克南部和中部等镇压措施却从未受到过严重惩罚。

The genocidal campaign, conducted between 1986 and 1989 and culminating in 1988, carried out by the Iraqi government against the Kurdish population was called Anfal (“Spoils of War”). The Anfal campaign led to destruction of over two thousand villages and killing of 182,000 Kurdish civilians.^[240] The campaign included the use of ground offensives, aerial bombing, systematic destruction of settlements, mass deportation, firing squads, and chemical attacks, including the most infamous attack on the Kurdish town of Halabja in 1988 that killed 5000 civilians instantly.
【参考译文】1986年至1989年间，伊拉克政府针对库尔德人进行了种族灭绝运动，并在1988年达到高潮，这场运动被称为“安法尔行动”（“战利品”之意）。安法尔行动导致2000多个村庄被摧毁，182,000名库尔德平民被杀。[240]该行动包括地面进攻、空中轰炸、系统性摧毁定居点、大规模驱逐、行刑队处决和化学袭击，其中最为臭名昭著的是1988年对库尔德城镇哈拉卜贾的化学袭击，导致5000名平民当场死亡。

After the collapse of the Kurdish uprising in March 1991, Iraqi troops recaptured most of the Kurdish areas and 1.5 million Kurds abandoned their homes and fled to the Turkish and Iranian borders. It is estimated that close to 20,000 Kurds succumbed to death due to exhaustion, lack of food, exposure to cold and disease. On 5 April 1991, UN Security Council passed resolution 688 which condemned the repression of Iraqi Kurdish civilians and demanded that Iraq end its repressive measures and allow immediate access to international humanitarian organizations.^[241] This was the first international document (since the League of Nations arbitration of Mosul in 1926) to mention Kurds by name. In mid-April, the Coalition established safe havens inside Iraqi borders and prohibited Iraqi planes from flying north of 36th parallel.^{[105]: 373, 375} In October 1991, Kurdish guerrillas captured Erbil and Sulaimaniyah after a series of clashes with Iraqi troops. In late October, Iraqi government retaliated by imposing a food and fuel embargo on the Kurds and stopping to pay civil servants in the Kurdish region. The embargo, however, backfired and Kurds held parliamentary elections in May 1992 and established Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG).^[242]
【参考译文】1991年3月库尔德起义失败后，伊拉克军队重新占领了大部分库尔德地区，150万库尔德人背井离乡，逃往土耳其和伊朗边境。据估计，近2万名库尔德人因筋疲力尽、缺乏食物、暴露于寒冷环境和疾病而死亡。1991年4月5日，联合国安理会通过第688号决议，谴责伊拉克对库尔德平民的镇压，并要求伊拉克结束镇压措施，允许国际人道主义组织立即进入。[241]这是自1926年国际联盟仲裁摩苏尔归属问题以来，第一份尔德提及人库名称的国际文件。4月中旬，联军在伊拉克境内设立了安全区，并禁止伊拉克飞机在北纬36度以北飞行。[105]:373,375 1991年10月，库尔德游击队在与伊拉克军队的一系列冲突后，占领了埃尔比勒和苏莱曼尼亚。10月底，伊拉克政府采取了报复行动，对库尔德人实施粮食和燃料禁运，并停止向库尔德地区的公务员支付薪水。然而，禁运适得其反，库尔德人于1992年5月举行了议会选举，并成立了库尔德斯坦地区政府（KRG）。[242]

The Kurdish population welcomed the American troops in 2003 by holding celebrations and dancing in the streets.^{[243][244][245][246]} The authority of the KRG and legality of its laws and regulations were recognized in the articles 113 and 137 of the new Iraqi Constitution ratified in 2005.^[247] By the beginning of 2006, the two Kurdish administrations of Erbil and Sulaimaniya were unified.^{[further explanation needed][citation needed]} On 14 August 2007, Yazidis were targeted in a series of bombings that became the deadliest suicide attack since the Iraq War began, killing 796 civilians, wounding 1,562.^[248]
【参考译文】2003年，库尔德民众通过举办庆典和街头舞蹈来欢迎美国军队的到来。[243][244][245][246]2005年批准的伊拉克新宪法第113条和第137条承认了库尔德斯坦地区政府的权威及其法律和法规的合法性。[247]到2006年初，埃尔比勒和苏莱曼尼亚的两个库尔德行政机构实现了统一。[需要进一步的解释][需要引文]2007年8月14日，亚述支派基督教徒（雅兹迪人）成为一系列炸弹袭击的目标，这是伊拉克战争开始以来最致命的自杀式袭击，造成796名平民死亡，1562人受伤。[248]

伊斯兰国组织崛起后，伊拉克库尔德自治区遭到攻击和许多屠杀事件，一线之隔的土耳其采取壁上观角色，也引起土境内库尔德人抗议，但土耳其视其境内库尔德为不稳定力量，要是出兵解围或给予武器，难保有一天伊土两地的库尔德族坐大后联盟起来要求建国，那就是最大心腹大患，相比之下伊斯兰国虽然残忍但是同为逊尼派又对土耳其短期内没有领土野心，战力又强，一个不可说的心机在土政府高层蔓延，就是不要积极攻打伊斯兰国组织，让它去屠杀库尔德族和叙利亚的什叶派^[30]，这两者都是土耳其大敌，出手帮助主要敌人是没道理的策略。

伊拉克库尔德人之政经地位属于中等，主要因为两伊战争及波湾战争后，严重削弱。 在宗教方面大多数属于逊尼派回教徒，主要是逊尼派阿拉伯人，再者是什叶派，仅有少数是阿列维派(Alevis) 或是亚契德(Yazidis)。 1960年代，伊朗王国、美国、以色列开始给予老巴塞尼的库尔德民主党坚定支持，对伊拉克进行镇压。1972年，伊拉克对英属石油公司进行国有化政策，美国曾透过伊朗对老巴塞尼更多武力支持。1975年伊朗国王及海珊进行协商，伊朗终止对老巴塞尼援助，库尔德人叛乱行动瓦解。而该库尔德人有三大主要势力，分别为: 库尔德斯坦民主党(KDP) 、老巴塞尼、库尔德斯坦工人党(PKK) 。 1980-1988 年的两伊战争期间，伊朗与伊拉克政府为了打击对方，各自极力设法鼓吹对方国家境内库尔德人争取独立。伊拉克基本上有三大要点:维护中东霸权地位、重划阿拉伯河边界、切断伊朗对库尔德人人的援助。起初海珊为求将精力集中在对付伊朗，并未对伊拉克境内库尔德人独立运动太过介意。然而伊拉克境内分裂的两股库尔德人势力中，“库尔德人民主党”（Kurdish Democratic Party, KDP）始终坚拒与海珊合作，导致海珊在1988年巴格达使用化学武器的对象不只是伊朗军民，同时也包括自己境内的库尔德人平民，但联合国经查证后，却没进一步的制裁。 1991年库尔德人叛乱失败，根据联合国安理会第688号决议，以北纬36度以北，作为库尔德人避难所，并且设立禁飞区以制止伊拉克空袭库尔德人。今伊拉克地区之库尔德人人仍希望独立于国家之外，只是受个国家之压迫，并于邻国土耳其之库尔德人间，难完全达成共识完成独立。而2014年开始，许多库尔德人人指控土耳其政府，暗中协助ISIS灭库尔德人人 。

虽然伊拉克政府反对，但是伊拉克库尔德斯坦还是于2017年9月25日举行独立公投。^[31][32][33]

6.3+1 叙利亚 | Syria

Main articles: Kurds in Syria and Rojava【主条目：叙利亚的库尔德人和罗贾瓦】

库尔德人人口占叙利亚人口的9%，总共约160万人。^[34]这令他们成为国内最大的少数民族。他们主要集中于东北部与北部，但在最大城市阿勒坡与首都大马士革也有明显的库尔德人人口。库尔德人在公共场所通常说库尔德语，除非没有其他库尔德人在场。国际特赦组织表示：库尔德人人权活动者受到虐待和迫害。^[35]任何政党都不被允许，包括库尔德人与其他族群。

Techniques used to suppress the ethnic identity of Kurds in Syria include various bans on the use of the Kurdish language, refusal to register children with Kurdish names, the replacement of Kurdish place names with new names in Arabic, the prohibition of businesses that do not have Arabic names, the prohibition of Kurdish private schools, and the prohibition of books and other materials written in Kurdish.^[251][252] Having been denied the right to Syrian nationality, around 300,000 Kurds have been deprived of any social rights, in violation of international law.^[253][254] As a consequence, these Kurds are in effect trapped within Syria. In March 2011, in part to avoid further demonstrations and unrest from spreading across Syria, the Syrian government promised to tackle the issue and grant Syrian citizenship to approximately 300,000 Kurds who had been previously denied the right.^[255]
【参考译文】叙利亚当局用来压制库尔德人民族身份的手段包括：禁止在各种场合使用库尔德语、拒绝为起库尔德名字的儿童登记、用阿拉伯文新名称取代库尔德文地名、禁止没有阿拉伯文名称的企业经营、禁止库尔德私立学校办学，以及禁止库尔德文书籍和其他材料。[251][252]约30万库尔德人被剥夺了叙利亚国籍，因此也被剥夺了任何社会权利，这违反了国际法。[253][254]因此，这些库尔德人实际上被困在了叙利亚。2011年3月，为了部分避免进一步的示威活动和动荡蔓延至叙利亚各地，叙利亚政府承诺解决这个问题，并向之前被剥夺国籍的大约30万库尔德人授予叙利亚公民身份。[255]

2004年3月12日，从卡米什利（叙利亚东北部一个主要的库尔德城市）一座体育场开始，库尔德人和叙利亚人之间爆发冲突并持续了数天。至少三十人死亡，超过160人受伤。骚乱蔓延到北部土耳其边界一带的其他库尔德人城镇，再波及到大马士革与阿勒坡。^[41][42]

As a result of Syrian civil war, since July 2012, Kurds were able to take control of large parts of Syrian Kurdistan from Andiwar in extreme northeast to Jindires in extreme northwest Syria. The Syrian Kurds started the Rojava Revolution in 2013.
【参考译文】由于叙利亚内战，自2012年7月以来，库尔德人能够从最东北部的安迪瓦尔控制叙利亚库尔德斯坦的大部分地区，一直到叙利亚极西北部的金德雷斯。2013年，叙利亚库尔德人发起了罗贾瓦革命。

2017年，叙利亚当局表示愿意在境内库尔德人协助消灭“伊斯兰国”后与其共同协商其自治议题。^[43]

Kurdish-inhabited Afrin Canton has been occupied by Turkish Armed Forces and Turkish-backed Free Syrian Army since the Turkish military operation in Afrin in early 2018. Between 150,000 and 200,000 people were displaced due to the Turkish intervention.^[258]
【参考译文】库尔德人聚居的阿夫林地区自2018年初土耳其对阿夫林的军事行动以来，一直被土耳其武装部队和土耳其支持的叙利亚自由军占领。由于土耳其的干预，有15万至20万人流离失所。[258]

In October 2019, Turkey and the Syrian Interim Government began an offensive into Kurdish-populated areas in Syria, prompting about 100,000 civilians to flee from the area fearing that Turkey would commit an ethnic cleansing.^[259][260]
【参考译文】2019年10月，土耳其和叙利亚临时政府开始对叙利亚库尔德人聚居区发动攻势，导致约10万名平民逃离该地区，他们担心土耳其会进行种族清洗。[259][260]

6.5 外高加索 | Transcaucasus

See also: Kurdish-Armenian relations and Kurds in Azerbaijan
【另请参见：库尔德-亚美尼亚关系和阿塞拜疆的库尔德人】

Between the 1930s and 1980s, Armenia was a part of the Soviet Union, within which Kurds, like other ethnic groups, had the status of a protected minority. Armenian Kurds were permitted their own state-sponsored newspaper, radio broadcasts and cultural events. During the conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, many non-Yazidi Kurds were forced to leave their homes since both the Azeri and non-Yazidi Kurds were Muslim.
【参考译文】在20世纪30年代至80年代期间，亚美尼亚是苏联的一部分，在这个国家内，库尔德人和其他民族一样，享有受保护少数民族的地位。亚美尼亚的库尔德人被允许拥有自己的国家资助的报纸、广播节目和文化活动。在纳戈尔诺-卡拉巴赫冲突期间，由于阿塞拜疆人和非雅兹迪库尔德人都是穆斯林，许多非雅兹迪库尔德人被迫离开家园。

In 1920, two Kurdish-inhabited areas of Jewanshir (capital Kalbajar) and eastern Zangazur (capital Lachin) were combined to form the Kurdistan Okrug (or “Red Kurdistan”). The period of existence of the Kurdish administrative unit was brief and did not last beyond 1929. Kurds subsequently faced many repressive measures, including deportations, imposed by the Soviet government. As a result of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, many Kurdish areas have been destroyed and more than 150,000 Kurds have been deported since 1988 by separatist Armenian forces.^[261]
【参考译文】1920年，两个库尔德人聚居的地区——杰万希尔（首府卡尔巴贾尔）和东赞加祖尔（首府拉钦）合并成立了库尔德斯坦州（或“红色库尔德斯坦”）。这个库尔德行政单位的存在时间很短，没有持续到1929年以后。库尔德人随后面临苏联政府实施的许多镇压措施，包括驱逐出境。由于纳戈尔诺-卡拉巴赫冲突，许多库尔德地区遭到破坏，自1988年以来，超过15万库尔德人被亚美尼亚分裂势力驱逐出境。[261]

6.6 离散族裔 | Diaspora

Main articles: Kurds in Germany, Kurds in France, Kurds in the Netherlands, Kurds in Finland, Kurds in Sweden, Kurds in Russia, Kurds in the United Kingdom, Kurds in Canada, Kurds in the United States, Kurds in Australia, Kurdish Jews in Israel, and Kurds in Japan
【主条目：德国的库尔德人、法国的库尔德人、荷兰的库尔德人、芬兰的库尔德人、瑞典的库尔德人、俄罗斯的库尔德人、英国的库尔德人、加拿大的库尔德人、美国的库尔德人、澳大利亚的库尔德人、以色列的库尔德裔犹太人以及日本的库尔德人】

According to a report by the Council of Europe, approximately 1.3 million Kurds live in Western Europe. The earliest immigrants were Kurds from Turkey, who settled in Germany, Austria, the Benelux countries, the United Kingdom, Switzerland and France during the 1960s. Successive periods of political and social turmoil in the region during the 1980s and 1990s brought new waves of Kurdish refugees, mostly from Iran and Iraq under Saddam Hussein, came to Europe.^[149] In recent years, many Kurdish asylum seekers from both Iran and Iraq have settled in the United Kingdom (especially in the town of Dewsbury and in some northern areas of London), which has sometimes caused media controversy over their right to remain.^[262] There have been tensions between Kurds and the established Muslim community in Dewsbury,^[263][264] which is home to very traditional mosques such as the Markazi. Since the beginning of the turmoil in Syria many of the refugees of the Syrian Civil War are Syrian Kurds and as a result many of the current Syrian asylum seekers in Germany are of Kurdish descent.^[265][266]
【参考译文】根据欧洲委员会的一份报告，约有130万库尔德人生活在西欧。最早的移民是来自土耳其的库尔德人，他们在20世纪60年代定居于德国、奥地利、比荷卢经济联盟国家（比利时、荷兰、卢森堡）、英国、瑞士和法国。20世纪80年代和90年代该地区接连不断的政治和社会动荡，带来了新的库尔德难民潮，其中大多数来自伊朗和萨达姆·侯赛因统治下的伊拉克，他们来到欧洲。[149]近年来，许多来自伊朗和伊拉克的库尔德寻求庇护者定居于英国（尤其是在德比郡的杜斯伯里镇和伦敦的一些北部地区），这有时会引起媒体对他们居留权的争议。[262]在杜斯伯里镇，库尔德人与当地已建立的穆斯林社区之间存在紧张关系，[263][264]这里有许多非常传统的清真寺，如马克阿兹清真寺。自叙利亚动荡开始以来，叙利亚内战的许多难民都是叙利亚库尔德人，因此，目前在德国寻求庇护的叙利亚人中有许多是库尔德后裔。[265][266]

There was substantial immigration of ethnic Kurds in Canada and the United States, who are mainly political refugees and immigrants seeking economic opportunity. According to a 2011 Statistics Canada household survey, there were 11,685 people of Kurdish ethnic background living in Canada,^[267] and according to the 2011 Census, 10,325 Canadians spoke Kurdish languages.^[268] In the United States, Kurdish immigrants started to settle in large numbers in Nashville in 1976,^[269] which is now home to the largest Kurdish community in the United States and is nicknamed Little Kurdistan.^[270] Kurdish population in Nashville is estimated to be around 11,000.^[271] The total number of ethnic Kurds residing in the United States is estimated by the US Census Bureau to be 20,591.^[25] Other sources claim that there are 20,000 ethnic Kurds in the United States.^[272]
【参考译文】加拿大和美国有大量库尔德族裔移民，他们主要是寻求政治庇护和经济机会的移民。根据加拿大统计局2011年家庭调查，加拿大有11,685名库尔德族裔人口，[267]而根据2011年人口普查，10,325名加拿大人使用库尔德语。[268]在美国，库尔德移民从1976年开始大量定居于纳什维尔，[269]纳什维尔现在是美国最大的库尔德人社区所在地，有“小库尔德斯坦”之称。[270]据估计，纳什维尔的库尔德人口约为11,000人。[271]据美国人口普查局估计，居住在美国的库尔德族裔总人口为20,591人。[25]另有消息来源称，美国有20,000名库尔德族裔人口。[272]

7. 文化 | Culture

Main articles: Kurdish culture and Kurdish literature【主条目：库尔德文化和库尔德文学】

Kurdish culture is a legacy from the various ancient peoples who shaped modern Kurds and their society. As most other Middle Eastern populations, a high degree of mutual influences between the Kurds and their neighbouring peoples are apparent. Therefore, in Kurdish culture elements of various other cultures are to be seen. However, on the whole, Kurdish culture is closest to that of other Iranian peoples, in particular those who historically had the closest geographical proximity to the Kurds, such as the Persians and Lurs. Kurds, for instance, also celebrate Newroz (21 March) as New Year’s Day.^[273]
【参考译文】库尔德文化是由塑造了现代库尔德人及其社会的各种古代民族遗留下来的。和大多数中东地区的人口一样，库尔德人与其邻国人民之间存在着高度的相互影响。因此，在库尔德文化中可以看到其他各种文化的元素。然而，总的来说，库尔德文化与其他伊朗民族的文化最为接近，特别是那些历史上与库尔德人地理上最接近的民族，如波斯人和鲁尔人。例如，库尔德人也把诺鲁孜节（3月21日）作为新年。[273]

7.1 教育 | Education

A madrasa system was used before the modern era.^[274][275] Mele are Islamic clerics and instructors.^[276]
【参考译文】在现代时代之前，采用的是经堂教育制度。[274][275]“毛拉”是指伊斯兰教的教士和教师。[276]

7.2 女人 | Women

Main article: Kurdish women【主条目：库尔德女人】

In general, Kurdish women’s rights and equality have improved in the 20th and 21st centuries due to progressive movements within Kurdish society. However, despite the progress, Kurdish and international women’s rights organizations still report problems related to gender equality, forced marriages, honor killings and in Iraq’s Erbil also female genital mutilation (FGM).^[277]
【参考译文】总的来说，由于库尔德社会内部的进步运动，20世纪和21世纪库尔德妇女的权利和地位有所提高。然而，尽管取得了进步，库尔德和国际妇女权利组织仍然报告存在与性别平等、强迫婚姻、名誉杀人有关的问题，以及在伊拉克埃尔比勒还存在的女性生殖器切割（FGM）问题。[277]

7.3 民俗 | Folklore

The Kurds possess a rich tradition of folklore, which, until recent times, was largely transmitted by speech or song, from one generation to the next. Although some of the Kurdish writers’ stories were well known throughout Kurdistan; most of the stories told and sung were only written down in the 20th and 21st centuries. Many of these are, allegedly, centuries old.
【参考译文】库尔德人拥有丰富的民俗传统，这些传统直到近代主要通过口头讲述或歌唱的方式，代代相传。尽管一些库尔德作家的故事在整个库尔德斯坦地区都广为人知；但大多数讲述和吟唱的故事都是在20世纪和21世纪才被记录下来的。据说，其中许多故事都有数百年的历史。

Widely varying in purpose and style, among the Kurdish folklore one will find stories about nature, anthropomorphic animals, love, heroes and villains, mythological creatures and everyday life. A number of these mythological figures can be found in other cultures, like the Simurgh and Kaveh the Blacksmith in the broader Iranian Mythology, and stories of Shahmaran throughout Anatolia. Additionally, stories can be purely entertaining, or have an educational or religious aspect.^[278]
【参考译文】库尔德民俗的目的和风格各异，其中包括关于自然、拟人化动物、爱情、英雄与恶棍、神话生物和日常生活的故事。在这些神话人物中，有一些也能在其他文化中找到，如伊朗神话中的西姆尔格和铁匠卡维赫，以及流传于整个安纳托利亚地区的沙赫马兰的故事。此外，故事可以纯粹是为了娱乐，也可以具有教育或宗教意义。[278]

Perhaps the most widely reoccurring element is the fox, which, through cunning and shrewdness triumphs over less intelligent species, yet often also meets his demise.^[278] Another common theme in Kurdish folklore is the origin of a tribe.
【参考译文】也许最常见的重复元素是狐狸，它凭借狡猾和机智战胜了不那么聪明的物种，但往往也遭遇了悲惨的结局。[278]库尔德民俗中的另一个常见主题是部落的起源。

Storytellers would perform in front of an audience, sometimes consisting of an entire village. People from outside the region would travel to attend their narratives, and the storytellers themselves would visit other villages to spread their tales. These would thrive especially during winter, where entertainment was hard to find as evenings had to be spent inside.^[278]
【参考译文】说书人会在观众面前表演，有时观众会由整个村庄的人组成。来自该地区以外的人会前来聆听他们的故事，而说书人自己也会访问其他村庄传播他们的传说。这些活动在冬季尤为盛行，因为那时晚上人们不得不待在室内，娱乐活动很难找到。[278]

Coinciding with the heterogeneous Kurdish groupings, although certain stories and elements were commonly found throughout Kurdistan, others were unique to a specific area; depending on the region, religion or dialect. The Kurdish Jews of Zakho are perhaps the best example of this; their gifted storytellers are known to have been greatly respected throughout the region, thanks to a unique oral tradition.^[279] Other examples are the mythology of the Yezidis,^[280] and the stories of the Dersim Kurds, which had a substantial Armenian influence.^[281]
【参考译文】与库尔德人群体内部的多样性相一致，尽管某些故事和元素在整个库尔德斯坦地区都很常见，但也有一些是特定地区独有的；这取决于地区、宗教或方言。扎霍的库尔德犹太人可能是这方面的最好例证；他们才华横溢的说书人因其独特的口头传统而在整个地区备受尊敬。[279]其他例子包括耶兹迪人的神话[280]，以及受亚美尼亚文化影响颇深的德西姆库尔德人的故事。[281]

During the criminalization of the Kurdish language after the coup d’état of 1980, dengbêj (singers) and çîrokbêj (tellers) were silenced, and many of the stories had become endangered. In 1991, the language was decriminalized, yet the now highly available radios and TV’s had as an effect a diminished interest in traditional storytelling.^[282] However, a number of writers have made great strides in the preservation of these tales.
【参考译文】在1980年军事政变后库尔德语被定为非法后，登贝杰（歌手）和奇洛克贝杰（说书人）被噤声，许多故事因此面临消亡的危险。1991年，库尔德语合法化，但如今收音机和电视的高普及率导致人们对传统说书艺术的兴趣减弱。[282]然而，一些作家在保护这些故事方面取得了巨大进展。

7.4 纺织 | Weaving

Kurdish weaving is renowned throughout the world, with fine specimens of both rugs and bags. The most famous Kurdish rugs are those from the Bijar region, in the Kurdistan Province. Because of the unique way in which the Bijar rugs are woven, they are very stout and durable, hence their appellation as the ‘Iron Rugs of Persia’. Exhibiting a wide variety, the Bijar rugs have patterns ranging from floral designs, medallions and animals to other ornaments. They generally have two wefts, and are very colorful in design.^[283] With an increased interest in these rugs in the last century, and a lesser need for them to be as sturdy as they were, new Bijar rugs are more refined and delicate in design.
【参考译文】库尔德编织品享誉全球，其地毯和袋子都是精品。最著名的库尔德地毯来自库尔德斯坦省的比贾尔地区。由于比贾尔地毯独特的编织方式，它们非常结实耐用，因此被称为“波斯铁毯”。比贾尔地毯图案多样，从花卉图案、奖章图案和动物图案到其他装饰品图案应有尽有。它们通常有两根纬线，设计色彩丰富。[283]上个世纪，人们对这些地毯的兴趣日益增加，对它们结实程度的要求也不再像以前那么高，因此新的比贾尔地毯在设计上更加精致细腻。

Another well-known Kurdish rug is the Senneh rug, which is regarded as the most sophisticated of the Kurdish rugs. They are especially known for their great knot density and high-quality mountain wool.^[283] They lend their name from the region of Sanandaj. Throughout other Kurdish regions like Kermanshah, Siirt, Malatya and Bitlis rugs were also woven to great extent.^[284]
【参考译文】另一种著名的库尔德地毯是森尼赫地毯，它被认为是库尔德地毯中最精致的一种。森尼赫地毯以其极高的结密度和优质的山羊毛而闻名。[283]它们的名字来源于桑丹贾地区。在其他库尔德地区，如克尔曼沙阿、西尔特、马拉蒂亚和比特利斯，也有大量地毯被编织出来。[284]

Kurdish bags are mainly known from the works of one large tribe: the Jaffs, living in the border area between Iran and Iraq. These Jaff bags share the same characteristics of Kurdish rugs; very colorful, stout in design, often with medallion patterns. They were especially popular in the West during the 1920s and 1930s.^[285]
【参考译文】库尔德袋子主要因一个大型部落的作品而知名：这个部落就是居住在伊朗和伊拉克边境地区的贾夫部落。这些贾夫袋子与库尔德地毯有着相同的特点：色彩丰富，设计结实，通常有奖章图案。它们在20世纪20年代和30年代在西方尤其受欢迎。[285]

7.5 手工艺品 | Handicrafts

Outside of weaving and clothing, there are many other Kurdish handicrafts, which were traditionally often crafted by nomadic Kurdish tribes. These are especially well known in Iran, most notably the crafts from the Kermanshah and Sanandaj regions. Among these crafts are chess boards, talismans, jewelry, ornaments, weaponry, instruments etc.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】除了编织和服饰之外，还有许多其他的库尔德手工艺品，这些手工艺品传统上常由游牧的库尔德部落制作。在伊朗，尤其是克尔曼沙阿和桑丹贾地区的手工艺品尤为著名。这些手工艺品包括棋盘、护身符、珠宝、装饰品、武器、乐器等。[需要引文]

Kurdish blades include a distinct jambiya, with its characteristic I-shaped hilt, and oblong blade. Generally, these possess double-edged blades, reinforced with a central ridge, a wooden, leather or silver decorated scabbard, and a horn hilt, furthermore they are often still worn decoratively by older men. Swords were made as well. Most of these blades in circulation stem from the 19th century.
【参考译文】库尔德人的匕首包括一种独特的贾姆比亚（jambiya），其特点是I形护手和长方形刀刃。通常，这些匕首具有双面刀刃，中央有脊加固，配有木制、皮革或银饰刀鞘，以及角制护手。此外，老年男性还经常将其用作装饰品佩戴。还制作了剑。目前流通的大部分匕首都源自19世纪。

Another distinct form of art from Sanandaj is ‘Oroosi’, a type of window where stylized wooden pieces are locked into each other, rather than being glued together. These are further decorated with coloured glass, this stems from an old belief that if light passes through a combination of seven colours it helps keep the atmosphere clean.
【参考译文】桑丹贾地区另一种独特的艺术形式是“奥罗西”（Oroosi），它是一种窗户，由风格化的木片相互锁扣而成，而不是用胶水粘合。这些窗户还用彩色玻璃进行装饰，这源于一种古老的信仰，即如果光线穿过七种颜色的组合，将有助于保持空气清新。

Among Kurdish Jews a common practice was the making of talismans, which were believed to combat illnesses and protect the wearer from malevolent spirits.
【参考译文】在库尔德犹太人中，制作护身符是一种常见的做法，他们相信护身符可以对抗疾病，保护佩戴者免受邪恶精神的侵害。

7.6 纹身 | Tattoos

Main article: Deq (tattoo)【主条目：德克（纹身）】

Adorning the body with tattoos (deq in Kurdish) is widespread among the Kurds; even though permanent tattoos are not permissible in Sunni Islam. Therefore, these traditional tattoos are thought to derive from pre-Islamic times.^[286]
【参考译文】在库尔德人中，用纹身（库尔德语称为deq）装饰身体十分普遍；尽管在逊尼派伊斯兰教中，永久性纹身是不被允许的。因此，人们认为这些传统纹身起源于伊斯兰教之前的时代。[286]

Tattoo ink is made by mixing soot with (breast) milk and the poisonous liquid from the gall bladder of an animal. The design is drawn on the skin using a thin twig and is injected under the skin using a needle. These have a wide variety of meanings and purposes, among which are protection against evil or illnesses; beauty enhancement; and the showing of tribal affiliations. Religious symbolism is also common among both traditional and modern Kurdish tattoos. Tattoos are more prevalent among women than among men, and were generally worn on feet, the chin, foreheads and other places of the body.^[286][287]
【参考译文】纹身墨水是由炭黑与（母乳）奶和动物胆囊中的毒液混合而成的。人们先用细树枝在皮肤上画出图案，然后用针将其注入皮肤下。这些纹身具有多种意义和用途，其中包括抵御邪恶或疾病；增强美感；以及表明部落归属。无论是传统还是现代的库尔德纹身中，宗教象征都很常见。纹身在女性中比男性更为普遍，通常纹在脚、下巴、额头和其他身体部位。[286][287]

The popularity of permanent, traditional tattoos has greatly diminished among newer generation of Kurds. However, modern tattoos are becoming more prevalent; and temporary tattoos are still being worn on special occasions (such as henna, the night before a wedding) and as tribute to the cultural heritage.^[286]
【参考译文】在库尔德人的新一代中，永久性传统纹身的流行程度已大大降低。然而，现代纹身变得越来越普遍；而在特殊场合（如婚礼前一晚的指甲花装饰）和向文化遗产致敬时，人们仍然会佩戴临时纹身。[286]

7.7 音乐和舞蹈 | Music and dance

Main article: Kurdish music【主条目：库尔德音乐】

Traditionally, there are three types of Kurdish classical performers: storytellers (çîrokbêj), minstrels (stranbêj), and bards (dengbêj). No specific music was associated with the Kurdish princely courts. Instead, music performed in night gatherings (şevbihêrk) is considered classical. Several musical forms are found in this genre. Many songs are epic in nature, such as the popular Lawiks, heroic ballads recounting the tales of Kurdish heroes such as Saladin. Heyrans are love ballads usually expressing the melancholy of separation and unfulfilled love. One of the first Kurdish female singers to sing heyrans is Chopy Fatah, while Lawje is a form of religious music and Payizoks are songs performed during the autumn. Love songs, dance music, wedding and other celebratory songs (dîlok/narînk), erotic poetry, and work songs are also popular.^{[citation needed]}
【参考译文】传统上，库尔德古典表演者有三种类型：说书人（çîrokbêj）、街头卖艺人（stranbêj）和吟游诗人（dengbêj）。库尔德王室宫廷并没有特定的音乐。相反，在夜间聚会（şevbihêrk）中演奏的音乐被视为古典音乐。这一流派中包含多种音乐形式。许多歌曲都具有史诗性质，如广受欢迎的拉维克（Lawiks），这些英勇的叙事歌谣讲述了诸如萨拉丁等库尔德英雄的故事。海兰（Heyrans）是爱情歌谣，通常表达分离和未了情缘的忧郁。第一位演唱海兰曲的库尔德女歌手是乔皮·法塔赫，而劳杰（Lawje）是一种宗教音乐形式，佩伊佐克（Payizoks）则是在秋季演唱的歌曲。情歌、舞曲、婚礼和其他庆祝歌曲（dîlok/narînk）、色情诗歌和劳动歌曲也很受欢迎。[需要引文]

Throughout the Middle East, there are many prominent Kurdish artists. Most famous are Ibrahim Tatlises, Nizamettin Arıç, Ahmet Kaya and the Kamkars. In Europe, well-known artists are Darin Zanyar, Sivan Perwer, and Azad.
【参考译文】在整个中东地区，有许多杰出的库尔德艺术家。其中最著名的是易卜拉欣·塔特利斯、尼扎梅廷·阿里奇、艾哈迈德·卡亚和卡姆卡尔斯组合。在欧洲，著名的艺术家包括达林·扎尼亚尔、西万·佩尔韦尔和阿扎德。

7.8 电影 | Cinema

Main article: Kurdish cinema【主条目：库尔德电影】

The main themes of Kurdish cinema are the poverty and hardship which ordinary Kurds have to endure. The first films featuring Kurdish culture were actually shot in Armenia. Zare, released in 1927, produced by Hamo Beknazarian, details the story of Zare and her love for the shepherd Seydo, and the difficulties the two experience by the hand of the village elder.^[288] In 1948 and 1959, two documentaries were made concerning the Yezidi Kurds in Armenia. These were joint Armenian-Kurdish productions; with H. Koçaryan and Heciye Cindi teaming up for The Kurds of Soviet Armenia,^[289] and Ereb Samilov and C. Jamharyan for Kurds of Armenia.^[289]
【参考译文】库尔德电影的主要主题是普通库尔德人不得不忍受的贫穷和困苦。第一部以库尔德文化为主题的电影实际上是在亚美尼亚拍摄的。1927年上映的《扎雷》由哈莫·别克纳扎里安执导，详细讲述了扎雷和她与牧羊人赛义德之间的爱情，以及两人因村长之手而经历的种种困难。[288]1948年和1959年，关于亚美尼亚的耶兹迪库尔德人的两部纪录片问世。这两部电影是亚美尼亚-库尔德联合制作的；由H.科恰良和赫奇耶·辛迪联手制作的《苏联亚美尼亚的库尔德人》，[289]以及由埃雷布·萨米洛夫和C.贾姆哈良联手制作的《亚美尼亚的库尔德人》。[289]

The first critically acclaimed and famous Kurdish films were produced by Yılmaz Güney. Initially a popular, award-winning actor in Turkey with the nickname Çirkin Kral (the Ugly King, after his rough looks), he spent the later part of his career producing socio-critical and politically loaded films. Sürü (1979), Yol (1982) and Duvar (1983) are his best-known works, of which the second won Palme d’Or at the Cannes Film Festival of 1982,^[290] the most prestigious award in the world of cinema.
【参考译文】第一位广受好评且著名的库尔德电影制片人是伊尔马兹·冈内。他起初是土耳其一位广受欢迎且屡获殊荣的演员，因其粗犷的外表而被称为“丑王”（Çirkin Kral）。在他职业生涯的后半段，他制作了多部具有社会批判性和政治色彩的电影。他的最著名的作品包括《羊群》（1979）、《道路》（1982）和《墙壁》（1983），其中《道路》在1982年戛纳电影节上获得了最高奖项金棕榈奖。[290]

Another prominent Kurdish film director is Bahman Qubadi. His first feature film was A Time for Drunken Horses, released in 2000. It was critically acclaimed, and went on to win multiple awards. Other movies of his would follow this example,^[291] making him one of the best known film producers of Iran of today. Recently, he released Rhinos Season, starring Behrouz Vossoughi, Monica Bellucci and Yilmaz Erdogan, detailing the tumultuous life of a Kurdish poet.
【参考译文】另一位著名的库尔德电影导演是巴赫曼·库巴迪。他的第一部故事片是2000年上映的《醉马时刻》。该片广受好评，并赢得了多个奖项。他后来的电影也延续了这一风格，[291]使他成为当今伊朗最著名的电影制片人之一。最近，他推出了由贝鲁兹·沃斯奎、莫妮卡·贝鲁奇和伊尔马兹·埃尔多安主演的《犀牛季节》，详细讲述了一位库尔德诗人动荡的一生。

Other prominent Kurdish film directors that are critically acclaimed include Mahsun Kırmızıgül, Hiner Saleem and the aforementioned Yilmaz Erdogan. There’s also been a number of films set or filmed in Kurdistan made by non-Kurdish film directors, such as The Wind Will Carry Us, Triage, The Exorcist, and The Market: A Tale of Trade.
【参考译文】其他广受好评的著名库尔德电影导演还包括马哈森·克尔米兹居尔、希内·萨利姆和前面提到的伊尔马兹·埃尔多安。此外，还有一些由非库尔德电影导演拍摄或以库尔德斯坦为背景的电影，如《风将带我们走》、《急救》、《驱魔人》和《市场：贸易的故事》。

7.9 体育 | Sports

The most popular sport among the Kurds is football. Because the Kurds have no independent state, they have no representative team in FIFA or the AFC; however a team representing Iraqi Kurdistan has been active in the Viva World Cup since 2008. They became runners-up in 2009 and 2010, before ultimately becoming champion in 2012.
【参考译文】库尔德人最受欢迎的运动是足球。由于库尔德人没有独立的国家，因此他们在国际足联（FIFA）或亚洲足球联合会（AFC）中没有代表队；不过，一支代表伊拉克库尔德斯坦的球队自2008年起一直在参加Viva世界杯。他们在2009年和2010年获得了亚军，最终在2012年夺得冠军。

On a national level, the Kurdish clubs of Iraq have achieved success in recent years as well, winning the Iraqi Premier League four times in the last five years. Prominent clubs are Erbil SC, Duhok SC, Sulaymaniyah FC and Zakho FC.
【参考译文】在国家层面上，伊拉克的库尔德足球俱乐部近年来也取得了成功，在过去五年中四次夺得伊拉克超级联赛冠军。著名的俱乐部包括埃尔比勒体育俱乐部、杜胡克体育俱乐部、苏莱曼尼亚足球俱乐部和扎胡足球俱乐部。

In Turkey, a Kurd named Celal Ibrahim was one of the founders of Galatasaray S.K. in 1905, as well as one of the original players. The most prominent Kurdish-Turkish club is Diyarbakirspor. In the diaspora, the most successful Kurdish club is Dalkurd FF and the most famous player is Eren Derdiyok.^[292]
【参考译文】在土耳其，名叫塞拉勒·易卜拉欣的库尔德人于1905年是加拉塔萨雷足球俱乐部（Galatasaray S.K.）的创始人之一，也是最早的球员之一。最著名的库尔德-土耳其俱乐部是迪亚巴克尔体育俱乐部（Diyarbakirspor）。在侨居地，最成功的库尔德俱乐部是达尔库尔德足球俱乐部（Dalkurd FF），最著名的球员是埃伦·德迪约克。[292]

Another prominent sport is wrestling. In Iranian Wrestling, there are three styles originating from Kurdish regions:
【参考译文】另一项著名的运动是摔跤。在伊朗摔跤中，有三种源自库尔德地区的风格：

• Zhir-o-Bal (a style similar to Greco-Roman wrestling), practised in Kurdistan, Kermanshah and Ilam;^[293]
  【参考译文】吉尔-巴尔（一种类似于古典式摔跤的风格），在库尔德斯坦、克尔曼沙阿和伊拉姆等地流行；[293]
• Zouran-Patouleh, practised in Kurdistan;^[293]
  【参考译文】兰-帕图莱赫，在库尔德斯坦流行；[293]
• Zouran-Machkeh, practised in Kurdistan as well.^[293]
  【参考译文】马赫凯，同样在库尔德斯坦流行。[293]

Furthermore, the most accredited of the traditional Iranian wrestling styles, the Bachoukheh, derives its name from a local Khorasani Kurdish costume in which it is practised.^[293]
【参考译文】此外，伊朗最传统且最受认可的摔跤风格巴赫乌克赫（Bachoukheh）的名字来源于当地霍拉桑库尔德人进行摔跤时所穿的服装。[293]

Kurdish medalists in the 2012 Summer Olympics were Nur Tatar,^[294] Kianoush Rostami and Yezidi Misha Aloyan;^[295] who won medals in taekwondo, weightlifting and boxing, respectively.
【参考译文】2012年夏季奥运会的库尔德奖牌得主包括努尔·塔塔尔，[294]基阿努什·罗斯塔米和耶兹迪·米沙·阿洛扬；[295]他们分别在跆拳道、举重和拳击项目中获得了奖牌。

7.10 建筑 | Architecture

The traditional Kurdish village has simple houses, made of mud. In most cases with flat, wooden roofs, and, if the village is built on the slope of a mountain, the roof on one house makes for the garden of the house one level higher. However, houses with a beehive-like roof, not unlike those in Harran, are also present.
【参考译文】传统的库尔德村庄里，房屋简陋，由泥土建造。大多数情况下，这些房屋有着平坦的木屋顶，如果村庄建在山坡上，那么一座房子的屋顶就成了上一级房子的花园。然而，也有一些房屋有着类似哈兰地区的蜂箱式屋顶。

Over the centuries many Kurdish architectural marvels have been erected, with varying styles. Kurdistan boasts many examples from ancient Iranian, Roman, Greek and Semitic origin, most famous of these include Bisotun and Taq-e Bostan in Kermanshah, Takht-e Soleyman near Takab, Mount Nemrud near Adiyaman and the citadels of Erbil and Diyarbakir.
【参考译文】几个世纪以来，建造了许多风格各异的库尔德建筑奇迹。库尔德斯坦拥有许多源自古代伊朗、罗马、希腊和闪族的建筑范例，其中最著名的包括克尔曼沙阿的比索顿和塔克-波斯坦，塔卡布附近的索尔曼宝座，阿迪亚曼附近的尼姆鲁德山，以及埃尔比勒和迪亚巴克尔的要塞。

The first genuinely Kurdish examples extant were built in the 11th century. Those earliest examples consist of the Marwanid Dicle Bridge in Diyarbakir, the Shadaddid Minuchir Mosque in Ani,^[296] and the Hisn al Akrad near Homs.^[297]
【参考译文】现存的最早的真正库尔德建筑范例建于11世纪。这些最早的建筑包括迪亚巴克尔的马尔瓦尼德底格里斯桥、阿尼的沙达迪德米努切尔清真寺[296]，以及霍姆斯附近的希斯纳尔-阿克拉德城堡[297]。

In the 12th and 13th centuries the Ayyubid dynasty constructed many buildings throughout the Middle East, being influenced by their predecessors, the Fatimids, and their rivals, the Crusaders, whilst also developing their own techniques.^[298] Furthermore, women of the Ayyubid family took a prominent role in the patronage of new constructions.^[299] The Ayyubids’ most famous works are the Halil-ur-Rahman Mosque that surrounds the Pool of Sacred Fish in Urfa, the Citadel of Cairo^[300] and most parts of the Citadel of Aleppo.^[301] Another important piece of Kurdish architectural heritage from the late 12th/early 13th centuries is the Yezidi pilgrimage site Lalish, with its trademark conical roofs.
【参考译文】在12世纪和13世纪，阿尤布王朝在整个中东建造了许多建筑，他们受到前朝法蒂玛王朝和对手十字军的影响，同时也发展了自己的技术[298]。此外，阿尤布王朝的女性在赞助新建筑方面发挥了重要作用[299]。阿尤布王朝最著名的建筑包括围绕乌尔法神圣鱼池的哈利勒-拉赫曼清真寺、开罗城堡[300]和大马士革城堡的大部分[301]。另一项重要的库尔德建筑遗产是12世纪末/13世纪初的耶兹迪圣地拉利什，它以其标志性的圆锥形屋顶而闻名。

In later periods too, Kurdish rulers and their corresponding dynasties and emirates would leave their mark upon the land in the form mosques, castles and bridges, some of which have decayed, or have been (partly) destroyed in an attempt to erase the Kurdish cultural heritage, such as the White Castle of the Bohtan Emirate. Well-known examples are Hosap Castle of the 17th century,^[302] Sherwana Castle of the early 18th century, and the Ellwen Bridge of Khanaqin of the 19th century.
【参考译文】在后来的时期，库尔德统治者及其相应的王朝和酋长国也会在土地上留下他们的印记，形式包括清真寺、城堡和桥梁，其中一些已经腐朽，或在试图抹去库尔德文化遗产的过程中被（部分）摧毁，比如博坦酋长国的白堡。著名的例子包括17世纪的霍萨普城堡[302]、18世纪初的谢尔瓦纳城堡，以及19世纪的哈纳金埃尔温桥。

Most famous is the Ishak Pasha Palace of Dogubeyazit, a structure with heavy influences from both Anatolian and Iranian architectural traditions. Construction of the Palace began in 1685, led by Colak Abdi Pasha, a Kurdish bey of the Ottoman Empire, but the building would not be completed until 1784, by his grandson, Ishak Pasha.^[303][304] Containing almost 100 rooms, including a mosque, dining rooms, dungeons and being heavily decorated by hewn-out ornaments, this Palace has the reputation as being one of the finest pieces of architecture of the Ottoman Period, and of Anatolia.
【参考译文】最著名的是道古拜亚兹特的伊沙克帕夏宫，这是一座深受安纳托利亚和伊朗建筑传统影响的建筑。宫殿的建设始于1685年，由奥斯曼帝国的库尔德贝伊科拉克·阿卜迪·帕夏领导，但直到1784年才由他的孙子伊沙克帕夏完成[303][304]。宫殿内有近100个房间，包括一座清真寺、餐厅、地牢，并以大量雕琢出来的装饰品装饰，被誉为奥斯曼时期和安纳托利亚最精美的建筑之一。

In recent years, the KRG has been responsible for the renovation of several historical structures, such as Erbil Citadel and the Mudhafaria Minaret.^[305]
【参考译文】近年来，库尔德斯坦地区政府（KRG）负责修复了几座历史建筑，如埃尔比勒要塞和穆达法里亚尖塔[305]。

8. 基因 | Genetics

See also: Genetic history of the Middle East【参见：中东的基因历史】

A 2005 study genetically examined three different groups of Zaza and Kurmanji speakers in Turkey and Kurmanji speakers in Georgia. In the study, mtDNA HV1 sequences, eleven Y chromosome bi-allelic markers and 9 Y-STR loci were analyzed to investigate lineage relationship among Kurdish groups. When both mtDNA and Y chromosome data are compared with those of the European, Caucasian, West Asian and Central Asian groups, it has been determined that the Kurdish groups are most closely related to West Asians and the furthest to Central Asians. Among the European and Caucasian groups, Kurds were found to be closer to Europeans than Caucasians when considering mtDNA, and the opposite was true for Y chromosome. This indicates a difference in maternal and paternal origins of Kurdish groups. According to the study, Kurdish groups in Georgia went through a genetic bottleneck while migrating to the Caucasus. It has also been revealed that these groups were not influenced by other Caucasian groups in terms of ancestry. Another phenomenon found in the research was that Zazas are closer to Kurdish groups rather than peoples of Northern Iran, where ancestral Zaza language hypothesized to be spoken before its spread to Anatolia.^[306]
【参考译文】2005年的一项研究从遗传学角度对土耳其的扎扎语和库尔德语（库曼吉方言）使用者三组不同群体以及格鲁吉亚的库尔德语（库曼吉方言）使用者进行了考察。在该研究中，研究者分析了线粒体DNA (mtDNA) HV1序列、11个Y染色体双等位基因标记和9个Y染色体短串联重复序列（Y-STR）位点，以调查库尔德群体之间的谱系关系。当将mtDNA和Y染色体的数据与欧洲、高加索、西亚和中亚群体的数据进行比较时，可以确定库尔德群体与西亚群体关系最为密切，而与中亚群体关系最远。在欧洲和高加索群体中，当考虑mtDNA时，库尔德人与欧洲人的关系比与高加索人的关系更密切，而对于Y染色体则相反。这表明库尔德群体的母系和父系起源存在差异。根据该研究，迁移到高加索地区的格鲁吉亚库尔德群体经历了遗传瓶颈。研究还表明，这些群体在血统上并未受到其他高加索群体的影响。研究发现的另一个现象是，扎扎人与库尔德群体的关系比与北伊朗人的关系更密切，而北伊朗是扎扎语祖先语言在传播到安纳托利亚之前据推测被使用的地区。[306]

11 different Y-DNA haplogroups have been identified in Kurmanji-speaking Kurds in Turkey. Haplogroup I-M170 was the most prevalent with 16.1% of the samples belonging to it, followed by haplogroups J-M172 (13.8%), R1a1 (12.7%), K (12.7%), E (11.5%) and F (11.5%). P1 (8%), P (5.7%), R1 (4.6%), G (2.3%) and C (1.1%) haplogroups were also present in lower proportions. Y-DNA haplogroup diversity were determined to be much lower among Georgian Kurds, as 5 haplogroups were discovered in total, where the dominant haplogroups were P1 (44%) and J-M172 (32%). The lowest Y-DNA haplogroup diversity was observed in Turkmenistan Kurds with only 4 haplogroups in total; F (41%) and R1 (29%) were dominant in this population.^[307][306]
【参考译文】在土耳其说库尔德语（库曼吉方言）的群体中，已确定存在11种不同的Y-DNA单倍群。其中，单倍群I-M170最为普遍，有16.1%的样本属于该单倍群，其次是单倍群J-M172（13.8%）、R1a1（12.7%）、K（12.7%）、E（11.5%）和F（11.5%）。P1（8%）、P（5.7%）、R1（4.6%）、G（2.3%）和C（1.1%）单倍群也以较低的比例存在。格鲁吉亚库尔德人的Y-DNA单倍群多样性要低得多，总共只发现了5个单倍群，其中主导单倍群是P1（44%）和J-M172（32%）。土库曼斯坦库尔德人的Y-DNA单倍群多样性最低，总共只有4个单倍群；其中F（41%）和R1（29%）在该群体中占主导地位。[307][306]

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