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目录
- 0. 概述
- 1. 名称
- 2. 历史 | History
- 2.1 早期历史 | Early history
- 2.2 基辅罗斯 | Kievan Rus’
- 2.3 莫斯科大公国 | Grand Principality of Moscow
- 2.4 沙皇俄国 | Tsardom of Russia
- 2.5 俄罗斯帝国 | Imperial Russia
- 2.6 革命和内战 | Revolution and civil war
- 2.7 苏联 | Soviet Union
- 2.7.1 计划经济与苏联社会 | Command economy and Soviet society
- 2.7.2 斯大林主义与现代化 | Stalinism and modernisation
- 2.7.3 第二次世界大战与联合国 | World War II and United Nations
- 2.7.4 超级大国与冷战 | Superpower and Cold War
- 2.7.5 赫鲁晓夫解冻改革与经济发展 | Khrushchev Thaw reforms and economic development
- 2.7.6 发达社会主义时期或停滞时代 | Period of developed socialism or Era of Stagnation
- 2.7.7 改革、民主化与俄罗斯主权 | Perestroika, democratisation and Russian sovereignty
- 2.8 独立的俄罗斯联邦 | Independent Russian Federation
- 2.8.1 向市场经济转型与政治危机 | Transition to a market economy and political crises
- 2.8.2 现代自由宪法、国际合作与经济稳定 | Modern liberal constitution, international cooperation and economic stabilisation
- 2.8.3 迈向现代化经济、政治集权与民主倒退 | Movement towards a modernised economy, political centralisation and democratic backsliding
- 2.8.4 入侵乌克兰 | Invasion of Ukraine
- 3. 地理 | Geography
- 4. 政府和政治 | Government and politics
- 5. 经济 | Economy
- 6. 人口统计 | Demographics
- 7. 文化 | Culture
- 参见、参考文献、外部链接
0. 概述
辽观注:此标题是我们在搬运、整合过程中添加的。
0.1 文字说明
辽观注:此标题是我们在搬运、整合过程中添加的。
ussia,[Russian: Россия, romanized: Rossiya, [rɐˈsʲijə]] or the Russian Federation,[Russian: Российская Федерация, romanized: Rossiyskaya Federatsiya, IPA: [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə]] is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the largest country in the world, and extends across eleven time zones, sharing land borders with fourteen countries.[The fourteen countries bordering Russia are[18] Norway and Finland to the northwest; Estonia, Latvia, Belarus and Ukraine to the west, as well as Lithuania and Poland (with Kaliningrad Oblast); Georgia and Azerbaijan to the southwest; Kazakhstan and Mongolia to the south; China and North Korea to the southeast. Russia also shares maritime boundaries with Japan and the United States. Russia also shares borders with the two partially recognised breakaway states of South Ossetia and Abkhazia that it occupies in Georgia.] Russia is the most populous country in Europe and the ninth-most populous country in the world. It is a highly urbanised country, with sixteen of its urban areas having more than 1 million inhabitants. Moscow, the most populous metropolitan area in Europe, is the capital and largest city of Russia, while Saint Petersburg is its second-largest city and cultural centre.
【参考译文】俄罗斯[俄语: Россия, 罗马化写法: Rossiya, [rɐˈsʲijə]],或称俄罗斯联邦[俄语: Российская Федерация, 罗马化写法: Rossiyskaya Federatsiya, 国际音标: [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə]],是一个横跨东欧和北亚的国家。它是世界上面积最大的国家,跨越11个时区,与14个国家接壤陆地边界[与俄罗斯接壤的十四个国家是[18]:西北部的挪威和芬兰;西部的爱沙尼亚、拉脱维亚、白俄罗斯和乌克兰,以及立陶宛和波兰(加里宁格勒州);西南部的格鲁吉亚和阿塞拜疆;南部的哈萨克斯坦和蒙古;东南部的中国和朝鲜。俄罗斯还与日本和美国隔海相望。此外,俄罗斯还与两个部分被承认的分离地区——南奥塞梯和阿布哈兹接壤,这两个地区位于格鲁吉亚境内并由俄罗斯实际控制。]。俄罗斯是欧洲人口最多的国家,也是世界第九大人口国。该国高度城市化,拥有16个超过100万人口的城市地区。莫斯科是欧洲人口最多的大都会区,也是俄罗斯的首都和最大城市,圣彼得堡则是其第二大城市和文化中心。
Human settlement on the territory of modern Russia dates back to the Lower Paleolithic. The East Slavs emerged as a recognised group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries CE. The first East Slavic state, Kievan Rus’, arose in the 9th century, and in 988, it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire. Kievan Rus’ ultimately disintegrated; the Grand Duchy of Moscow led the unification of Russian lands, leading to the proclamation of the Tsardom of Russia in 1547. By the early 18th century, Russia had vastly expanded through conquest, annexation, and the efforts of Russian explorers, developing into the Russian Empire, which remains the third-largest empire in history. However, with the Russian Revolution in 1917, Russia’s monarchic rule was abolished and eventually replaced by the Russian SFSR—the world’s first constitutionally socialist state. Following the Russian Civil War, the Russian SFSR established the Soviet Union with three other Soviet republics, within which it was the largest and principal constituent. The Soviet Union underwent rapid industrialisation in the 1930s, amidst the deaths of millions under Joseph Stalin‘s rule, and later played a decisive role for the Allies in World War II by leading large-scale efforts on the Eastern Front. With the onset of the Cold War, it competed with the United States for ideological dominance and international influence. The Soviet era of the 20th century saw some of the most significant Russian technological achievements, including the first human-made satellite and the first human expedition into outer space.
【参考译文】人类在今天俄罗斯境内的居住历史可以追溯到旧石器时代早期。东斯拉夫人作为一个公认的族群群体,在公元3世纪至8世纪之间在欧洲出现。第一个东斯拉夫国家基辅罗斯(Kievan Rus’)诞生于9世纪,并于公元988年接受了来自拜占庭帝国的东正教基督教。基辅罗斯最终解体后,莫斯科大公国领导了俄罗斯土地的统一,并于1547年宣布成立沙皇俄国。到了18世纪初,俄罗斯通过征服、兼并以及俄罗斯探险家的努力迅速扩张,发展为俄罗斯帝国,成为历史上第三大的帝国。然而,随着1917年的俄国革命,君主制被废除,并最终被俄罗斯苏维埃联邦社会主义共和国(俄罗斯苏维埃联邦)取代——这是世界上首个宪法意义上的社会主义国家。俄国内战结束后,俄罗斯苏维埃联邦与其他三个苏维埃共和国共同建立了苏联,并在其中作为最大和最重要的成员。20世纪30年代,苏联实现了快速工业化,尽管在约瑟夫·斯大林统治下有数百万人死亡。随后,它在第二次世界大战中发挥了决定性作用,领导了东线战场上的大规模作战行动。冷战开始后,苏联与美国展开意识形态主导权和国际影响力的竞争。20世纪的苏联时期见证了俄罗斯一些最重大的科技成就,包括第一颗人造卫星和首次载人进入太空。
In 1991, the Russian SFSR emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as the Russian Federation. A new constitution was adopted, which established a federal semi-presidential system. Since the turn of the century, Russia’s political system has been dominated by Vladimir Putin, under whom the country has experienced democratic backsliding and become an authoritarian dictatorship. Russia has been militarily involved in a number of conflicts in former Soviet states and other countries, including its war with Georgia in 2008 and its war with Ukraine since 2014. The latter has involved the internationally unrecognised annexations of Ukrainian territory, including Crimea in 2014 and four other regions in 2022, during an ongoing invasion.
【参考译文】1991年,俄罗斯苏维埃联邦从苏联解体中独立出来,成为俄罗斯联邦。随后通过了一部新宪法,确立了一个联邦半总统制政体。自21世纪以来,俄罗斯的政治体系一直由弗拉基米尔·普京主导,在他的领导下,该国经历了民主倒退,成为一个威权独裁国家。俄罗斯参与了多个前苏联国家和其他国家的军事冲突,包括2008年与格鲁吉亚的战争,以及自2014年以来对乌克兰的战争。这场战争包括一些未获国际承认的领土吞并行为,如2014年兼并克里米亚,以及在2022年正在进行的入侵期间非法吞并另外四个乌克兰地区。
Russia is generally considered a great power and is a regional power, possessing the largest stockpile of nuclear weapons and having the third-highest military expenditure in the world. It has a high-income economy, which is the eleventh-largest in the world by nominal GDP and fourth-largest by PPP, relying on its vast mineral and energy resources, which rank as the second-largest in the world for oil and natural gas production. However, Russia ranks very low in international measurements of democracy, human rights and freedom of the press, and also has high levels of perceived corruption. It is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council; a member state of the G20, SCO, BRICS, APEC, OSCE, and WTO; and the leading member state of post-Soviet organisations such as CIS, CSTO, and EAEU. Russia is home to 32 UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
【参考译文】俄罗斯通常被视为一个全球大国和地区强国,拥有世界最大的核武储备,并且军费开支位居全球第三。俄罗斯拥有高收入经济体,按名义GDP计算为世界第十一经济大国,按购买力平价(PPP)计算为第四大经济体,其经济依赖于丰富的矿产和能源资源,石油和天然气产量居世界第二位。然而,俄罗斯在国际上关于民主、人权和新闻自由的评估中排名非常低,腐败现象也较为严重。俄罗斯是联合国安理会常任理事国;是二十国集团(G20)、上海合作组织(SCO)、金砖国家(BRICS)、亚太经合组织(APEC)、欧安组织(OSCE)和世界贸易组织(WTO)成员国;同时也是后苏联组织的主要成员国,如独立国家联合体(CIS)、集体安全条约组织(CSTO)和欧亚经济联盟(EAEU)。俄罗斯境内拥有32处联合国教科文组织认定的世界遗产地。
0.2 概况表格
辽观注:此标题是我们在搬运、整合过程中添加的。
俄罗斯联邦Российская Федерация(俄语) | |
---|---|
国歌:《俄罗斯联邦国歌》Государственный гимн Российской Федерации 时长:1分22秒。1:22 | |
首都暨最大城市 | 莫斯科![]() |
官方语言 | 俄语 |
认可的语言 | 35种地方语言 |
族群(2011年) | 俄罗斯族(81%) 鞑靼族(3.7%) 乌克兰族(1.4%) 巴什基尔族(1.1%) 楚瓦什族(1.8%) 车臣人(0.8%) 其他(11%)[1] |
政府 | 法律上:联邦半总统制的立宪共和国[2]事实上:一党独大且个人独裁的混合制共和国[3][4][5][6] |
• 总统 | 弗拉基米尔·普京 |
• 总理 | 米哈伊尔·米舒斯京 |
• 联邦委员会主席 | 瓦莲京娜·马特维延科 |
• 国家杜马主席 | 维亚切斯拉夫·沃洛金 |
• 最高法院院长 | 伊琳娜·波德诺索娃 |
• 宪法法院院长 | 瓦列里·佐尔金 |
立法机构 | 联邦会议 |
• 上议院 | 联邦委员会 |
• 下议院 | 国家杜马 |
现役军人 | 1,150,600人(2023年)(第5名) |
形成 | |
• 基辅罗斯建立 | 882年 |
• 莫斯科大公国成立 | 1283年 |
• 沙皇俄国建立 | 1547年1月16日 |
• 俄罗斯帝国成立 | 1721年10月22日 |
• 俄罗斯共和国成立苏俄成立 | 1917年3月15日1917年11月7日 |
• 苏联成立 | 1922年12月30日 |
• 俄罗斯联邦成立 | 1991年12月25日 |
• 宪法生效 | 1993年12月25日 |
面积 | |
• 总计 | 17,098,246平方公里(第1名) |
• 水域率 | 13[7](包括沼泽)% |
人口 | |
• 2025年估计 | 146,150,789[8] (包括克里米亚)(第9名) |
• 密度 | 8.4人/平方公里(第181名) |
GDP(PPP) | 2025 estimate【2025年估计值】 |
• 总计 | ↑ $7.192 trillion[15] (4th) 【7.192万亿美元[15](第4位)】 |
• 人均 | ↑ $49,383[15] (43rd) 【49,383美元[15](第43位)】 |
GDP(国际汇率) | 2025 estimate【2025年估计值】 |
• 总计 | ↓ $2.076 trillion[15] (11th) 【2.076万亿美元[15](第11位)】 |
• 人均 | ↓ $14,258[15] (65th) 【14,258美元[15](第65位)】 |
基尼系数 | ↓ 36.0[16](2020) medium inequality【中等不平等】 |
人类发展指数 | ↑ 0.832[17] very high (64th)【极高(第64位)】 |
货币 | 俄罗斯卢布(₽)(RUB) |
时区 | UTC+2至+12 |
日期格式 | dd.mm.yyyy |
• 历法 | 儒略历 |
行驶方位 | 靠右 |
电话区号 | +7 |
ISO 3166码 | RU |
互联网顶级域 | .ru、.su、.рф |
网站 gov.ru |
1. 名称
辽观注:此标题是我们在搬运、整合过程中添加的。
1.1 词源 | Etymology
Main article: Names of Rus’, Russia and Ruthenia
【主条目:罗斯(Rus’)、俄罗斯(Russia)与鲁塞尼亚(Ruthenia)的名称】
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the English name Russia first appeared in the 14th century, borrowed from Medieval Latin: Russia, used in the 11th century and frequently in 12th-century British sources, in turn derived from Russi, ‘the Russians’ and the suffix -ia.[19][20]
【参考译文】根据《牛津英语词典》(Oxford English Dictionary),英文中“Russia”(俄罗斯)一词最早出现在14世纪,它借自中世纪拉丁语中的“Russia”,该词在11世纪已使用,并频繁出现在12世纪的英国资料中,而“Russia”又源自“Russi”(意为“罗斯人”或“俄罗斯人”)和后缀“-ia”。[19][20]
There are several words in Russian which translate to “Russians” in English. The noun and adjective русский, russkiy refers to ethnic Russians. The adjective российский, rossiiskiy denotes Russian citizens regardless of ethnicity. The same applies to the more recently coined noun россиянин, rossiianyn, in the sense of citizen of the Russian state.[21][22]
【参考译文】俄语中有几个词可以翻译为英文的“Russians”(俄罗斯人)。名词和形容词“русский”(russkiy)指的是族裔意义上的俄罗斯人。形容词“российский”(rossiiskiy)则指不论民族背景的俄罗斯公民。这一含义也适用于较新造出的名词“россиянин”(rossiyanin),即“俄罗斯国家的公民”。[21][22]
The oldest endonyms used were Rus’ (Русь) and the “Russian land” (Русская земля, Russkaya zemlya).[23] According to the Primary Chronicle, the word Rus’ is derived from the Rus’ people, who were a Swedish tribe, and from where the three original members of the Rurikid dynasty came from.[24] The Finnish word for Swedes, ruotsi, has the same origin.[25] In modern historiography, the early medieval East Slavic state is usually referred to as Kievan Rus’, named after its capital city.[26] Another Medieval Latin name for Rus’ was Ruthenia.[27]
【参考译文】最早使用的本土名称是“Русь”(Rus’,罗斯)和“Русская земля”(Russkaya zemlya,俄罗斯土地)。[23] 根据《往年纪事》(Primary Chronicle),”Rus'”(罗斯)这个词源自“罗斯人”,他们是一个瑞典部落,也是留里克王朝(Rurikid dynasty)三位最初成员的来源地。[24] 芬兰语中“瑞典人”的说法“ruotsi”也有相同的词源。[25] 在现代历史学术语中,早期中世纪的东斯拉夫国家通常被称为“基辅罗斯”(Kievan Rus’),以其首都基辅命名。[26] 另一个用于“罗斯”的中世纪拉丁语名称是“Ruthenia”(鲁塞尼亚)。[27]
In Russian, the current name of the country, Россия (Rossiya), comes from the Byzantine Greek name Ρωσία (Rosía).[28] The name Росия (Rosiya) was first attested in 1387.[29] The name Rossiya appeared in Russian sources in the 15th century and began to replace the vernacular Rus’ during the rise of Moscow as the centre of a unified Russian state.[30] However, until the end of the 17th century, the country was more often referred to by its inhabitants as Rus’, the “Russian land” (Russkaya zemlya), or the “Muscovite state” (Moskovskoye gosudarstvo), among other variations.[31][21]
【参考译文】在俄语中,现今国家的名称“Россия”(Rossiya,俄罗斯)源自拜占庭希腊语中的“Ρωσία”(Rosía)。[28] “Росия”(Rosiya)一词最早见于1387年。[29] “Россия”(Rossiya)出现在15世纪的俄语文献中,并在莫斯科逐渐成为统一俄罗斯国家中心的过程中开始取代通俗用语“Русь”(Rus’)。[30] 然而,直到17世纪末,当地人更常称自己的国家为“Русь”(Rus’)、“Русская земля”(Russkaya zemlya,俄罗斯土地)或“Московское государство”(Moscovskoye gosudarstvo,莫斯科公国)等不同称呼。[31][21]
In 1721, Peter the Great proclaimed the Russian Empire (Rossiyskaya imperiya).[31] The name Rossiya was used as the common designation for the multinational Russian Empire and then for the modern Russian state.[32] Rossiya is distinguished from the ethnonym russkiy, as it refers to a supranational identity, including ethnic Russians.[32] After the Russian Revolution and the proclamation of the Russian SFSR in 1918, the “Russian” in the title of the state was Rossiyskaya, rather than Russkaya, as the former denoted a multinational state, while the latter had ethnic dimensions.[33] In modern Russian, the name Rus’ is still used in poetry or prose to refer to either the older Russia or an imagined essence of Russia.[26]
【参考译文】1721年,彼得大帝宣布成立“俄罗斯帝国”(Rossiyskaya imperiya)。[31] 从此,“Rossiya”这一名称被广泛用于指代多民族的俄罗斯帝国,后来也用于指现代俄罗斯国家。[32] “Rossiya”有别于民族词汇“russkiy”,因为它代表一种超民族的身份认同,包含了俄罗斯族和其他民族。[32] 在俄国革命之后,1918年宣布成立的“俄罗斯苏维埃社会主义共和国”(Russian SFSR)的国名中使用的是“Rossiyskaya”,而非“Russkaya”,因为前者表示一个多民族国家,而后者具有民族属性。[33] 在现代俄语中,“Русь”(Rus’)仍常用于诗歌或散文中,用来指代古老的俄罗斯或想象中的俄罗斯精神本质。
1.2 译名由来
按照俄语发音“Россия”,其名称应译为“罗西亚”。元朝时根据蒙古语译为“斡罗思”[d],到清朝初年许多文献中曾称之为“罗刹国”[e],但在以国家相称时则多译为“鄂罗斯”[f]或“俄罗斯”。乾隆年间官修《四库全书》时将其正式统一为“俄罗斯”或简称“俄国”,自此沿用至今。[27]此外,同治年间出版的《新遗诏圣经》中出现了“鿡西亚”的译名,以求接近俄语原始发音。[g]
另一说法是,在清朝入主中原时期,原居于欧洲,属于斯拉夫人分支的罗斯人,开始横越西伯利亚东来至黑龙江上游一带,准备占据当地。由于罗斯人抵达中国边境时,最先与蒙古人与达斡尔人等接触,这些民族于提及人名或地方名时,惯于前面加上“俄”的发音,于是“罗斯”即变为“俄罗斯”。
日本汉字与朝鲜汉字则将俄罗斯称为“露西亚”(日语:ロシア roshia */?,朝鲜语:노서아 noseoa */?[h]),台湾的部分台语使用者也沿用日文的“露西亚”称之,此译名较为接近俄语原始发音。
旧时上海人将俄罗斯译为“罗宋”,因而有罗宋汤、罗宋人、罗宋面包等词。[29][30][31][32]
2. 历史 | History
Main article: History of Russia【主条目:俄罗斯历史】
从国家和国际法律的角度来看,现代俄罗斯民族国家在1917年11月7日出现。1991年12月25日更名为“俄罗斯联邦”,通称为“俄罗斯”、“俄联邦”或“俄国”,是苏联和俄罗斯苏维埃联邦社会主义共和国的继承者。

2.1 早期历史 | Early history
Further information: Ancient Greek colonies, Early Slavs, Huns, Turkic expansion, and Prehistory of Siberia
【进一步信息:古希腊殖民地、早期斯拉夫人、匈奴、突厥扩张及西伯利亚的史前时期】
See also: Proto-Indo-Europeans and Proto-Uralic homeland
【另见:原始印欧人和原始乌拉尔人故乡】
The first human settlement on Russia dates back to the Oldowan period in the early Lower Paleolithic. About 2 million years ago, representatives of Homo erectus migrated to the Taman Peninsula in southern Russia.[34] Flint tools, some 1.5 million years old, have been discovered in the North Caucasus.[35] Radiocarbon dated specimens from Denisova Cave in the Altai Mountains estimate the oldest Denisovan specimen lived 195–122,700 years ago.[36] Fossils of Denny, an archaic human hybrid that was half Neanderthal and half Denisovan, and lived some 90,000 years ago, was also found within the latter cave.[37] Russia was home to some of the last surviving Neanderthals, from about 45,000 years ago, found in Mezmaiskaya cave.[38]
【参考译文】俄罗斯地区最早的人类居住可以追溯到早更新世时期的奥尔多万时期。大约200万年前,直立人(Homo erectus)迁徙到了俄罗斯南部的塔曼半岛。[34] 在北高加索地区发现了约150万年前的燧石工具。[35] 对阿尔泰山脉丹尼索瓦洞穴中的样本进行放射性碳测定,估计最古老的丹尼索瓦人样本生活在19.5万至12.27万年前。[36] 在同一洞穴中还发现了“Denny”的化石,这是一种古老人类的混血儿,一半是尼安德特人,一半是丹尼索瓦人,生活在大约9万年前。[37] 俄罗斯也是最后一批存活的尼安德特人的家园之一,大约在4.5万年前,这些尼安德特人的遗骸在梅日马耶斯卡亚洞穴被发现。[38]
The first trace of an early modern human in Russia dates back to 45,000 years, in Western Siberia.[39] The discovery of high concentration cultural remains of anatomically modern humans, from at least 40,000 years ago, was found at Kostyonki–Borshchyovo,[40] and at Sungir, dating back to 34,600 years ago—both in western Russia.[41] Humans reached Arctic Russia at least 40,000 years ago, in Mamontovaya Kurya.[42] Ancient North Eurasian populations from Siberia genetically similar to Mal’ta–Buret’ culture and Afontova Gora were an important genetic contributor to Ancient Native Americans and Eastern Hunter-Gatherers.[43]
【参考译文】在俄罗斯发现的最早现代人类痕迹可追溯至4.5万年前,地点位于西伯利亚西部。[39] 在俄罗斯西部的科斯托皮基–博尔希乔沃(Kostyonki–Borshchyovo)地区,发现了至少距今4万年前、文化遗迹高度集中的解剖学意义上的现代人类活动痕迹。[40] 此外,在距今约3.46万年前的辛吉尔(Sungir)地区也发现了类似的遗迹,该地同样位于俄罗斯西部。[41]人类至少在4万年前就已到达俄罗斯境内的北极地区——在马蒙托瓦亚·库里亚(Mamontovaya Kurya)已发现了当时的人类活动证据。[42]西伯利亚的古代北欧亚人群(Ancient North Eurasians),在基因上与马尔塔—布列特文化(Mal’ta–Buret’ culture)和阿丰托瓦·戈拉(Afontova Gora)人群相似,是古代美洲原住民(Ancient Native Americans)和东部狩猎采集者(Eastern Hunter-Gatherers)的重要遗传贡献者。[43]
The Kurgan hypothesis places the Volga-Dnieper region of southern Russia and Ukraine as the urheimat of the Proto-Indo-Europeans.[45] Early Indo-European migrations from the Pontic–Caspian steppe of Ukraine and Russia spread Yamnaya ancestry and Indo-European languages across large parts of Eurasia.[46][47] Nomadic pastoralism developed in the Pontic–Caspian steppe beginning in the Chalcolithic.[48] Remnants of these steppe civilisations were discovered in places such as Ipatovo,[48] Sintashta,[49] Arkaim,[50] and Pazyryk,[51] which bear the earliest known traces of horses in warfare.[49] The genetic makeup of speakers of the Uralic language family in northern Europe was shaped by migration from Siberia that began at least 3,500 years ago.[52]
【参考译文】库尔干假说(Kurgan hypothesis)认为,原始印欧人的起源地(urheimat)位于俄罗斯和乌克兰南部的伏尔加河—第聂伯河流域地区。[45] 早期印欧人从乌克兰和俄罗斯境内的庞蒂克—里海草原迁徙而出,将亚姆纳文化人群的血统和印欧语系传播到欧亚大陆的广大地区。[46][47] 游牧畜牧业最早在铜石并用时代(Chalcolithic)起源于庞蒂克—里海草原地区。[48] 这些草原文明的遗迹在伊帕托沃(Ipatovo)、辛塔什塔(Sintashta)、阿卡伊姆(Arkaim)和帕兹雷克(Pazyryk)等地被发现,这些遗址中保留着目前已知最早的战马使用痕迹。[49]北欧乌拉尔语系族群的基因构成受到了来自西伯利亚的迁徙人口的影响,这一迁徙至少始于3500年前。[52]
In the 3rd to 4th centuries CE, the Gothic kingdom of Oium existed in southern Russia, which was later overrun by Huns. Between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE, the Bosporan Kingdom, which was a Hellenistic polity that succeeded the Greek colonies,[53] was also overwhelmed by nomadic invasions led by warlike tribes such as the Huns and Eurasian Avars.[54] The Khazars, who were of Turkic origin, ruled the steppes between the Caucasus in the south, to the east past the Volga river basin, and west as far as Kyiv on the Dnieper river until the 10th century.[55] After them came the Pechenegs who created a large confederacy, which was subsequently taken over by the Cumans and the Kipchaks.[56]
【参考译文】公元3至4世纪,哥特人的奥伊乌姆王国(Oium)曾存在于俄罗斯南部,后来被匈奴人征服。公元3至6世纪期间,继希腊殖民地之后建立的博斯普鲁斯王国(Bosporan Kingdom),一个具有希腊化特征的政治实体,也遭到匈奴和欧亚阿瓦尔等好战部落领导的游牧入侵而覆灭。[54]可萨人(Khazars)是突厥民族的一支,他们在10世纪以前统治着从南部高加索地区向东延伸至伏河流域、向西达第聂伯河沿岸基辅的大片草原地带。[55] 此后,佩切涅格人(Pechenegs)建立起一个庞大的联盟体系,随后被库曼人(Cumans)和钦察人(Kipchaks)所取代。[56]
The ancestors of Russians are among the Slavic tribes that separated from the Proto-Indo-Europeans, who appeared in the northeastern part of Europe c. 1500 years ago.[57] The East Slavs gradually settled western Russia (approximately between modern Moscow and Saint-Petersburg) in two waves: one moving from Kiev towards present-day Suzdal and Murom and another from Polotsk towards Novgorod and Rostov.[58] Prior to Slavic migration, that territory was populated by Finno-Ugrian peoples. From the 7th century onwards, the incoming East Slavs slowly assimilated the native Finno-Ugrians.[59][60]
【参考译文】俄罗斯人的祖先属于那些从原始印欧人中分离出来的斯拉夫部落,这些部落大约在1500年前出现在欧洲东北部。[57] 东斯拉夫人逐渐分两波迁入今日俄罗斯西部地区(大致位于现代莫斯科与圣彼得堡之间):一波从基辅出发向东进入苏兹达尔(Suzdal)和穆罗姆(Murom),另一波则从波洛茨克(Polotsk)出发前往诺夫哥罗德(Novgorod)和罗斯托夫(Rostov)。[58] 在斯拉夫人迁入之前,该地区居住的是芬兰—乌戈尔语族人群。自7世纪起,陆续迁入的东斯拉夫人开始逐步同化当地的土著居民。[59][60]
2.2 基辅罗斯 | Kievan Rus’
Main articles: Rus’ Khaganate; Kievan Rus’; and List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine
【主条目:罗斯可萨汗国;基辅罗斯;以及白俄罗斯、俄罗斯和乌克兰的部落与国家列表】
The establishment of the first East Slavic states in the 9th century coincided with the arrival of Varangians, the Vikings who ventured along the waterways extending from the eastern Baltic to the Black and Caspian Seas.[59][61] According to the Primary Chronicle, a Varangian from the Rus’ people, named Rurik, was elected ruler of Novgorod in 862. In 882, his successor Oleg ventured south and conquered Kiev, which had been previously paying tribute to the Khazars.[59][61] Rurik’s son Igor and Igor’s son Sviatoslav subsequently subdued all local East Slavic tribes to Kievan rule, destroyed the Khazar Khaganate,[62] and launched several military expeditions to Bulgaria, Byzantium and Persia.[63][64]
【参考译文】9世纪,第一个东斯拉夫国家的建立恰逢瓦良格人(Varangians)的到来。这些瓦良格人就是维京人,他们沿着从东波罗的海通往黑海和里海的水路航行而来。[59][61] 根据《往年纪事》(Primary Chronicle),一位属于罗斯人(Rus’)部落的瓦良格人名叫留里克(Rurik),于公元862年被推举为诺夫哥罗德(Novgorod)的统治者。公元882年,他的继任者奥列格(Oleg)南下征服了基辅(Kiev),而基辅此前曾向可萨汗国(Khazar Khaganate)纳贡。[59][61] 留里克的儿子伊戈尔(Igor)及其孙子斯维亚托斯拉夫(Sviatoslav)随后征服了所有当地的东斯拉夫部落,统一了基辅罗斯地区,摧毁了可萨汗国,[62] 并多次出兵远征保加利亚、拜占庭和波斯。[63][64]
In the 10th to 11th centuries, Kievan Rus’ became one of the largest and most prosperous states in Europe. The reigns of Vladimir the Great (980–1015) and his son Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054) constitute the Golden Age of Kiev, which saw the acceptance of Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium, and the creation of the first East Slavic written legal code, the Russkaya Pravda.[59] The age of feudalism and decentralisation had come, marked by constant in-fighting between members of the Rurik dynasty that ruled Kievan Rus’ collectively. Kiev’s dominance waned, to the benefit of Vladimir-Suzdal in the north-east, the Novgorod Republic in the north, and Galicia-Volhynia in the south-west.[59] By the 12th century, Kiev lost its pre-eminence and Kievan Rus’ had fragmented into different principalities.[65] Prince Andrey Bogolyubsky sacked Kiev in 1169 and made Vladimir his base,[65] leading to political power being shifted to the north-east.[59]
【参考译文】在10至11世纪期间,基辅罗斯成为欧洲最大、最繁荣的国家之一。弗拉基米尔大帝(Vladimir the Great,980–1015年在位)和他的儿子智者雅罗斯拉夫(Yaroslav the Wise,1019–1054年在位)统治时期被称为基辅的黄金时代。在此期间,罗斯接受了来自拜占庭的东正教基督教,并制定了第一部东斯拉夫文字法律——《罗斯法典》(Russkaya Pravda)。[59]随着封建制度的发展,基辅罗斯进入了一个权力分散的时代,表现为留里克王朝各成员之间的持续内斗。基辅的主导地位逐渐削弱,东北部的弗拉基米尔—苏兹达尔公国(Vladimir-Suzdal)、北部的诺夫哥罗德共和国(Novgorod Republic)以及西南部的加利西亚—沃里尼亚公国(Galicia-Volhynia)相继崛起。[59] 到12世纪时,基辅已失去其领先地位,基辅罗斯分裂为多个独立的公国。[65] 1169年,安德烈·博戈柳布斯基(Andrey Bogolyubsky)攻陷基辅,并将统治中心设在弗拉基米尔,标志着政治重心向东北转移。[65]
Led by Prince Alexander Nevsky, Novgorodians repelled the invading Swedes in the Battle of the Neva in 1240,[66] as well as the Germanic crusaders in the Battle on the Ice in 1242.[67]
【参考译文】在亚历山大·涅夫斯基王子(Alexander Nevsky)的领导下,诺夫哥罗德人在1240年的涅瓦河战役中击退了入侵的瑞典军队,[66] 又在1242年的冰上之战中击败了日耳曼十字军。[67]
Kievan Rus’ finally fell to the Mongol invasion of 1237–1240, which resulted in the sacking of Kiev and other cities, as well as the death of a major part of the population.[59] The invaders, later known as Tatars, formed the state of the Golden Horde, which ruled over Russia for the next two centuries.[68] Only the Novgorod Republic escaped foreign occupation after it agreed to pay tribute to the Mongols.[59] Galicia-Volhynia would later be absorbed by Lithuania and Poland, while the Novgorod Republic continued to prosper in the north. In the northeast, the Byzantine-Slavic traditions of Kievan Rus’ were adapted to form the Russian autocratic state.[59]
【参考译文】最终,基辅罗斯在1237年至1240年间遭到蒙古人的入侵而灭亡。这场入侵导致基辅和其他城市被洗劫,大量人口死亡。[59] 入侵者后来被称为鞑靼人,他们建立了金帐汗国(Golden Horde),并在接下来的两个世纪中统治了俄罗斯大部分地区。[68] 唯一未被占领的是诺夫哥罗德共和国,它通过向蒙古人缴纳贡赋而得以保持独立。[59] 加利西亚—沃里尼亚后来被立陶宛和波兰吞并,而诺夫哥罗德共和国则在北方继续繁荣发展。在东北地区,基辅罗斯所传承的拜占庭—斯拉夫传统被吸收融合,形成了后来的俄罗斯专制国家。[59]
2.3 莫斯科大公国 | Grand Principality of Moscow
Main article: Grand Principality of Moscow【主条目:莫斯科大公国】
The destruction of Kievan Rus’ saw the eventual rise of the Grand Principality of Moscow, initially a part of Vladimir-Suzdal.[59]: 11–20 While still under the domain of the Mongol–Tatars and with their connivance, Moscow began to assert its influence in the region in the early 14th century,[69] gradually becoming the leading force in the “gathering of the Russian lands”.[59][70] When the seat of the Metropolitan of the Russian Orthodox Church moved to Moscow in 1325, its influence increased.[71] Moscow’s last rival, the Novgorod Republic, prospered as the chief fur trade centre and the easternmost port of the Hanseatic League.[72]
【参考译文】随着基辅罗斯的瓦解,莫斯科大公国逐渐崛起,最初它是弗拉基米尔—苏兹达尔公国的一部分。[59]: 11–20 尽管仍处于蒙古—鞑靼统治之下,并在他们的默许下,莫斯科在14世纪初开始在地区事务中发挥影响力,[69] 并逐步成为“收复俄罗斯土地”运动中的领导力量。[59][70] 1325年,俄罗斯东正教大主教的驻地迁至莫斯科,进一步提升了莫斯科的地位。[71] 莫斯科最后的主要对手是繁荣的诺夫哥罗德共和国,它作为主要的毛皮贸易中心,以及汉萨同盟(Hanseatic League)最东部的港口城市而兴盛。[72]
Led by Prince Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow, the united army of Russian principalities inflicted a milestone defeat on the Mongol-Tatars in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380.[59] Moscow gradually absorbed its parent duchy and surrounding principalities, including formerly strong rivals such as Tver and Novgorod.[59]
【参考译文】1380年,在莫斯科大公德米特里·顿斯科伊(Dmitry Donskoy)的领导下,俄罗斯各公国联军在库利科沃战役(Battle of Kulikovo)中对蒙古—鞑靼军队取得具有里程碑意义的胜利。[59] 此后,莫斯科逐步吞并了其母公国及周边其他公国,包括此前实力强大的图拉(Tver)和诺夫哥罗德等竞争对手。[59]
Ivan III (“the Great”) threw off the control of the Golden Horde and gained sovereignty over the ethnically Russian lands;[59] he later adopted the title of sovereign of all Russia.[73] After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Moscow claimed succession to the legacy of the Eastern Roman Empire. Ivan III married Sophia Palaiologina, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI, and made the Byzantine double-headed eagle his own, and eventually Russia’s, coat-of-arms.[59] Vasili III united all of Russia by annexing the last few independent Russian states in the early 16th century.[74]
【参考译文】伊凡三世(“伊凡大帝”)摆脱了金帐汗国的控制,实现了对大部分俄罗斯民族聚居地区的统一,并自称“全罗斯君主”。[59] 他后来采用了“全俄罗斯君主”的称号。[73] 1453年君士坦丁堡陷落后,莫斯科宣称继承东罗马帝国(拜占庭帝国)的遗产。伊凡三世迎娶了最后一位拜占庭皇帝君士坦丁十一世的侄女索菲亚·帕里奥洛加(Sophia Palaiologina),并将拜占庭的双头鹰标志作为自己的徽章,最终也成为俄罗斯的国徽。[59] 到16世纪初,瓦西里三世(Vasili III)通过兼并最后几个独立的俄罗斯公国,完成了整个俄罗斯的统一。[74]
2.4 沙皇俄国 | Tsardom of Russia
Main article: Tsardom of Russia【主条目:沙皇俄国】
See also: Moscow, third Rome【参见:莫斯科,第三罗马】
In development of the Third Rome ideas, the grand prince Ivan IV (“the Terrible”) was officially crowned as the first tsar of all Russia in 1547. The tsar promulgated a new code of laws (Sudebnik of 1550), established the first Russian feudal representative body (the Zemsky Sobor), revamped the military, curbed the influence of the clergy, and reorganised local government.[59] During his long reign, Ivan nearly doubled the already large Russian territory by annexing the three Tatar khanates: Kazan and Astrakhan along the Volga,[75] and the Khanate of Sibir in southwestern Siberia. Ultimately, by the end of the 16th century, Russia expanded east of the Ural Mountains.[76] However, the Tsardom was weakened by the long and unsuccessful Livonian War against the coalition of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (later the united Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth), the Kingdom of Sweden, and Denmark–Norway for access to the Baltic coast and sea trade.[77] In 1572, an invading army of Crimean Tatars were thoroughly defeated in the crucial Battle of Molodi.[78]
【参考译文】在“第三罗马”思想的发展背景下,大公伊凡四世(“恐怖的伊凡”)于1547年正式加冕为第一位全俄罗斯沙皇。沙皇颁布了一部新的法典(《1550年审判法典》Sudebnik of 1550),建立了俄国第一个封建代表机构(缙绅会议 Zemsky Sobor),改革了军队,限制了教会的影响力,并重组了地方行政体系。[59]在伊凡漫长的统治期间,他通过兼并伏尔加河流域的喀山汗国和阿斯特拉罕汗国,以及西伯利亚西南部的西比尔汗国,使原本已经辽阔的俄罗斯领土几乎扩大了一倍。[75] 到16世纪末,俄罗斯的疆域已扩展至乌拉尔山脉以东。[76]然而,沙皇俄国因长期而未能取胜的立窝尼亚战争而遭到削弱。这场战争是与波兰王国和立陶宛大公国(后来合并为波兰—立陶宛联邦)、瑞典王国以及丹麦—挪威联盟之间爆发的冲突,目的是争夺波罗的海沿岸及海上贸易通道的控制权。[77] 1572年,克里米亚鞑靼人的入侵军队在关键性的莫洛季战役(Battle of Molodi)中被彻底击败。[78]
The death of Ivan’s sons marked the end of the ancient Rurik dynasty in 1598, and in combination with the disastrous famine of 1601–1603, led to a civil war, the rule of pretenders, and foreign intervention during the Time of Troubles in the early 17th century.[79] The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, taking advantage, occupied parts of Russia, extending into the capital Moscow.[80] In 1612, the Poles were forced to retreat by the Russian volunteer corps, led by merchant Kuzma Minin and prince Dmitry Pozharsky.[81] The Romanov dynasty acceded to the throne in 1613 by the decision of the Zemsky Sobor, and the country started its gradual recovery from the crisis.[82]
【参考译文】伊凡四世的儿子们去世后,统治已久的留里克王朝于1598年终结。这一事件,加之1601–1603年间灾难性的大饥荒,引发了17世纪初俄罗斯的内战、伪沙皇的统治以及外国干涉的“混乱时期”(Time of Troubles)。[79] 波兰—立陶宛联邦趁机占领了俄罗斯部分地区,甚至控制了首都莫斯科。[80]1612年,在商人库兹马·米宁(Kuzma Minin)和德米特里·波扎尔斯基公爵(Dmitry Pozharsky)领导的俄罗斯志愿军的打击下,波兰军队被迫撤出。[81] 1613年,通过缙绅会议(Zemsky Sobor)的决定,罗曼诺夫王朝正式登上王位,标志着国家开始逐步走出危机。[82]
Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age of the Cossacks.[83] In 1654, the Ukrainian leader, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, offered to place Ukraine under the protection of the Russian tsar, Alexis, whose acceptance of this offer led to another Russo-Polish War. Ultimately, Ukraine was split along the Dnieper, leaving the eastern part, (Left-bank Ukraine and Kiev) under Russian rule.[84] In the east, the rapid Russian exploration and colonisation of vast Siberia continued, hunting for valuable furs and ivory. Russian explorers pushed eastward primarily along the Siberian River Routes, and by the mid-17th century, there were Russian settlements in eastern Siberia, on the Chukchi Peninsula, along the Amur River, and on the coast of the Pacific Ocean.[83] In 1648, Semyon Dezhnyov became the first European to navigate through the Bering Strait.[85]
【参考译文】在整个17世纪,俄罗斯继续扩张其领土,也被称为哥萨克时代。[83] 1654年,乌克兰领导人博赫丹·赫梅利尼茨基(Bohdan Khmelnytsky)提出让乌克兰接受俄罗斯沙皇阿列克谢(Alexis)保护的请求。沙皇接受了这一提议,从而引发了新一轮俄波战争。最终,乌克兰沿第聂伯河分裂,东部地区(左岸乌克兰和基辅)归入俄罗斯统治之下。[84]在东部,俄罗斯对广袤西伯利亚地区的探索和殖民迅速推进,主要目的是获取珍贵的毛皮和象牙。俄国探险者沿着西伯利亚河流路线不断东进,到17世纪中叶,俄罗斯已在东西伯利亚、楚科奇半岛、黑龙江流域以及太平洋沿岸建立了定居点。[83] 1648年,谢苗·杰日涅夫(Semyon Dezhnyov)成为第一位穿越白令海峡的欧洲人。[85]
2.5 俄罗斯帝国 | Imperial Russia
Main article: Russian Empire【主条目:俄罗斯帝国】
Under Peter the Great, Russia was proclaimed an empire in 1721, and established itself as one of the European great powers. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated Sweden in the Great Northern War (1700–1721), securing Russia’s access to the sea and sea trade. In 1703, on the Baltic Sea, Peter founded Saint Petersburg as Russia’s new capital. Throughout his rule, sweeping reforms were made, which brought significant Western European cultural influences to Russia.[59] He was succeeded by Catherine I (1725–1727), followed by Peter II (1727–1730), and Anna. The reign of Peter I’s daughter Elizabeth in 1741–1762 saw Russia’s participation in the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763). During the conflict, Russian troops overran East Prussia, reaching Berlin.[86] However, upon Elizabeth’s death, all these conquests were returned to the Kingdom of Prussia by pro-Prussian Peter III of Russia.[87]
【参考译文】在彼得大帝统治下,俄罗斯于1721年正式宣布为帝国,并成为欧洲列强之一。彼得从1682年统治到1725年,他在大北方战争(1700–1721)中击败了瑞典,确保了俄罗斯通往海洋及海上贸易的通道。1703年,彼得在波罗的海沿岸建立了圣彼得堡,并将其作为俄罗斯的新首都。在他的统治期间,进行了广泛的改革,使俄罗斯深受西欧文化的影响。[59]彼得大帝之后依次由叶卡捷琳娜一世(1725–1727)、彼得二世(1727–1730)和安娜女皇继位。彼得一世的女儿伊丽莎白女皇在位期间(1741–1762),俄罗斯参与了七年战争(1756–1763)。在这场战争中,俄军占领了东普鲁士,并推进至柏林。[86] 然而,伊丽莎白女皇去世后,亲普鲁士的彼得三世继位,将所有这些战时占领的土地归还给了普鲁士王国。[87]
Catherine II (“the Great”), who ruled in 1762–1796, presided over the Russian Age of Enlightenment. She extended Russian political control over the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and annexed most of its territories into Russia, making it the most populous country in Europe.[88] In the south, after the successful Russo-Turkish Wars against the Ottoman Empire, Catherine advanced Russia’s boundary to the Black Sea, by dissolving the Crimean Khanate, and annexing Crimea.[89] As a result of victories over Qajar Iran through the Russo-Persian Wars, by the first half of the 19th century, Russia also conquered the Caucasus.[90] Catherine’s successor, her son Paul, was unstable and focused predominantly on domestic issues.[91] Following his short reign, Catherine’s strategy was continued with Alexander I‘s (1801–1825) wresting of Finland from the weakened Sweden in 1809,[92] and of Bessarabia from the Ottomans in 1812.[93] In North America, the Russians became the first Europeans to reach and colonise Alaska.[94] In 1803–1806, the first Russian circumnavigation was made.[95] In 1820, a Russian expedition discovered the continent of Antarctica.[96]
【参考译文】叶卡捷琳娜二世(“叶卡捷琳娜大帝”)在1762年至1796年在位期间,领导俄罗斯进入了启蒙时代。她扩大了俄罗斯对波兰—立陶宛联邦的政治控制,并吞并了其大部分领土,使俄罗斯成为当时欧洲人口最多的国家。[88]在南方,通过在俄土战争中战胜奥斯曼帝国,叶卡捷琳娜将俄罗斯的边界推进至黑海地区,她还解散了克里米亚汗国,并将克里米亚纳入俄罗斯版图。[89] 此外,在与伊朗卡扎尔王朝进行的俄波战争中获胜后,到19世纪上半叶,俄罗斯也征服了整个高加索地区。[90]叶卡捷琳娜的继任者是她的儿子保罗一世,但他统治不稳定,主要关注国内事务。[91] 在他短暂的统治之后,叶卡捷琳娜的扩张政策由她的孙子亚历山大一世(1801–1825年在位)继续推行。他在1809年从日益衰弱的瑞典手中夺取了芬兰,[92] 又于1812年从奥斯曼帝国手中占领了比萨拉比亚(今摩尔多瓦部分地区)。[93]在北美,俄罗斯人成为首批抵达并殖民阿拉斯加的欧洲人。[94] 1803年至1806年间,俄罗斯完成了首次环球航行。[95] 1820年,一支俄罗斯探险队发现了南极洲大陆。[96]
2.5.1 强国地位与社会、科学和艺术的发展 | Great power and development of society, sciences, and arts
During the Napoleonic Wars, Russia joined alliances with various European powers, and fought against France. The French invasion of Russia at the height of Napoleon’s power in 1812 reached Moscow, but eventually failed as the obstinate resistance in combination with the bitterly cold Russian winter led to a disastrous defeat of invaders, in which the pan-European Grande Armée faced utter destruction. Led by Mikhail Kutuzov and Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly, the Imperial Russian Army ousted Napoleon and drove throughout Europe in the War of the Sixth Coalition, ultimately entering Paris.[97] Alexander I controlled Russia’s delegation at the Congress of Vienna, which defined the map of post-Napoleonic Europe.[98]
【参考译文】在拿破仑战争期间,俄罗斯与多个欧洲国家结盟,共同对抗法国。1812年,拿破仑势力达到顶峰时对俄罗斯发动入侵,法军一度攻至莫斯科,但最终因俄军顽强抵抗及严酷的俄罗斯寒冬而导致了一场灾难性的失败,整个泛欧大军几乎全军覆没。由米哈伊尔·库图佐夫(Mikhail Kutuzov)和米哈伊尔·安德烈亚斯·巴克莱·德托利(Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly)领导的俄罗斯帝国军队击败了拿破仑,并在第六次反法同盟战争中横扫欧洲,最终进入巴黎。[97] 亚历山大一世代表俄罗斯出席维也纳会议,这次会议确定了拿破仑战后欧洲的地图。[98]
The officers who pursued Napoleon into Western Europe brought ideas of liberalism back to Russia, and attempted to curtail the tsar’s powers during the abortive Decembrist revolt of 1825.[99] At the end of the conservative reign of Nicholas I (1825–1855), a zenith period of Russia’s power and influence in Europe, was disrupted by defeat in the Crimean War.[100]
【参考译文】那些追击拿破仑进入西欧的军官们将自由主义的思想带回了俄罗斯,并在1825年未遂的十二月党人起义中尝试限制沙皇的权力。[99] 尼古拉一世(1825-1855年在位)保守统治末期,俄罗斯在欧洲的权力和影响力达到顶点,但克里米亚战争中的失败打破了这一局面。[100]
2.5.2 伟大的自由主义改革与资本主义 | Great liberal reforms and capitalism
Nicholas’s successor Alexander II (1855–1881) enacted significant changes throughout the country, including the emancipation reform of 1861.[101] These reforms spurred industrialisation, and modernised the Imperial Russian Army, which liberated much of the Balkans from Ottoman rule in the aftermath of the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War.[102] During most of the 19th and early 20th century, Russia and Britain colluded over Afghanistan and its neighbouring territories in Central and South Asia; the rivalry between the two major European empires came to be known as the Great Game.[103]
【参考译文】尼古拉斯一世的继任者亚历山大二世(1855–1881年在位)在全国范围内实施了多项重大改革,其中包括1861年的农奴制解放改革。[101] 这些改革推动了工业化进程,并使俄罗斯帝国军队实现现代化。在1877–1878年俄土战争结束后,俄军解放了巴尔干地区的大部分领土,使其摆脱了奥斯曼帝国的统治。[102]在整个19世纪和20世纪初,俄罗斯与英国在阿富汗及其邻近的中亚和南亚地区展开角力;这两个欧洲大国之间的竞争被称为“大博弈”(The Great Game)。[103]
The late 19th century saw the rise of various socialist movements in Russia. Alexander II was assassinated in 1881 by revolutionary terrorists.[104] The reign of his son Alexander III (1881–1894) was less liberal but more peaceful.[105]
【参考译文】19世纪后期,俄国出现了各种社会主义运动。1881年,亚历山大二世被革命恐怖分子刺杀身亡。[104] 他的儿子亚历山大三世(1881–1894年在位)统治时期较为保守,但国家整体更加和平稳定。[105]
2.5.3 君主立宪与第一次世界大战 | Constitutional monarchy and World War
Under last Russian emperor, Nicholas II (1894–1917), the Revolution of 1905 was triggered by the humiliating failure of the Russo-Japanese War.[106] The uprising was put down, but the government was forced to concede major reforms (Russian Constitution of 1906), including granting freedoms of speech and assembly, the legalisation of political parties, and the creation of an elected legislative body, the State Duma.[107]
【参考译文】在末代俄罗斯皇帝尼古拉二世(1894–1917年在位)统治期间,1905年革命因日俄战争的惨败而爆发,这场战争使俄国蒙受巨大耻辱。[106] 起义虽然被镇压,但政府被迫做出重大让步,颁布了1906年俄罗斯宪法,[107] 改革内容包括:赋予言论自由和集会自由、允许政党合法存在,并设立了一个选举产生的立法机构——国家杜马(State Duma)。
2.6 革命和内战 | Revolution and civil war
Main articles: Russian Revolution, Russian Civil War, and Dissolution of the Russian Empire
【主条目:俄罗斯革命、俄国内战、俄罗斯帝国的解体】
In 1914, Russia entered World War I in response to Austria-Hungary‘s declaration of war on Russia’s ally Serbia,[108] and fought across multiple fronts while isolated from its Triple Entente allies.[109] In 1916, the Brusilov Offensive of the Imperial Russian Army almost completely destroyed the Austro-Hungarian Army.[110] However, the already-existing public distrust of the regime was deepened by the rising costs of war, high casualties, and rumors of corruption and treason. All this formed the climate for the Russian Revolution of 1917, carried out in two major acts.[59] In early 1917, Nicholas II was forced to abdicate; he and his family were imprisoned and later executed during the Russian Civil War.[111] The monarchy was replaced by a shaky coalition of political parties that declared itself the Provisional Government,[112] and proclaimed the Russian Republic. On 19 January [O.S. 6 January], 1918, the Russian Constituent Assembly declared Russia a democratic federal republic (thus ratifying the Provisional Government’s decision). The next day the Constituent Assembly was dissolved by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee.[59]
【参考译文】1914年,由于奥匈帝国对俄国的盟友塞尔维亚宣战,俄罗斯加入第一次世界大战。[108] 在战争中,俄国在多个战线作战,同时与其协约国盟友之间联系孤立。[109] 1916年,俄罗斯帝国陆军发动布鲁西洛夫攻势,几乎彻底摧毁了奥匈帝国军队。[110] 然而,由于战争带来的高昂代价、巨大的人员伤亡,以及关于腐败和叛国的传闻,公众对政权早已存在的不信任情绪进一步加深。这一切为1917年的俄国革命创造了条件,这场革命分为两个主要阶段进行。[59]1917年初,尼古拉二世被迫退位;他和他的家人随后被监禁,并在俄国内战期间遭到处决。[111] 君主制被一个由多个政党组成的临时政府取代,该政府宣布自己为临时政权,[112] 并宣告成立俄罗斯共和国。1918年1月19日(儒略历1月6日),俄罗斯立宪会议宣布俄罗斯为民主联邦共和国(从而正式批准了临时政府的决定)。次日,立宪会议即被全俄中央执行委员会解散。[59]
An alternative socialist establishment co-existed, the Petrograd Soviet, wielding power through the democratically elected councils of workers and peasants, called soviets. The rule of the new authorities only aggravated the crisis in the country instead of resolving it, and eventually, the October Revolution, led by Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Provisional Government and gave full governing power to the soviets, leading to the creation of the world’s first socialist state.[59] The Russian Civil War broke out between the anti-communist White movement and the Bolsheviks with its Red Army.[113] In the aftermath of signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that concluded hostilities with the Central Powers of World War I, Bolshevist Russia surrendered most of its western territories, which hosted 34% of its population, 54% of its industries, 32% of its agricultural land, and roughly 90% of its coal mines.[114]
【参考译文】与此同时,另一个社会主义性质的政权也并行存在——彼得格勒苏维埃(Petrograd Soviet),它通过工人和农民选举产生的代表机构(称为“苏维埃”)行使权力。新政权的统治不仅未能缓解国家危机,反而使局势更加恶化。最终,在布尔什维克领袖列宁的领导下爆发了十月革命,推翻了临时政府,将全部政权移交给苏维埃,由此建立了世界上第一个社会主义国家。[59]俄国内战随即在反共主义的白军运动与布尔什维克及其红军之间爆发。[113] 在与第一次世界大战中的同盟国签订《布列斯特-立托夫斯克条约》后,布尔什维克俄国失去了大部分西部领土。这些地区拥有当时俄国34%的人口、54%的工业、32%的耕地,以及大约90%的煤矿。[114]
The Allied powers launched an unsuccessful military intervention in support of anti-communist forces.[115] In the meantime, both the Bolsheviks and White movement carried out campaigns of deportations and executions against each other, known respectively as the Red Terror and White Terror.[116] By the end of the violent civil war, Russia’s economy and infrastructure were heavily damaged, and as many as 10 million perished during the war, mostly civilians.[117] Millions became White émigrés,[118] and the Russian famine of 1921–1922 claimed up to five million victims.[119]
【参考译文】协约国列强曾出兵干涉,试图支持俄国境内的反共势力,但最终未能成功。[115] 在此期间,布尔什维克和白军各自发动了针对对方的驱逐与处决行动,分别被称为“红色恐怖”和“白色恐怖”。[116]血腥的内战结束时,俄国的经济和基础设施遭到严重破坏,战争期间死亡人数可能高达一千万人,其中大多数为平民。[117] 数以百万计的人流亡海外,成为“白俄侨民”。[118] 随后爆发的1921–1922年俄国大饥荒又导致多达五百万人丧生。[119]
2.7 苏联 | Soviet Union
Main article: History of the Soviet Union【主条目:苏联历史】
2.7.1 计划经济与苏联社会 | Command economy and Soviet society
On 30 December 1922, Lenin and his aides formed the Soviet Union, by joining the Russian SFSR into a single state with the Byelorussian, Transcaucasian, and Ukrainian republics.[120] Eventually internal border changes and annexations during World War II created a union of 15 republics, the largest in size and population being the Russian SFSR, which dominated the union politically, culturally, and economically.[121]
【参考译文】1922 年 12 月 30 日,列宁和他的助手们将俄罗斯苏维埃联邦社会主义共和国与白俄罗斯、外高加索和乌克兰共和国合并为一个国家,成立了苏联。[120] 最终,第二次世界大战期间的内部边界变更和吞并创建了一个由 15 个共和国组成的联盟,其中面积和人口最多的是俄罗斯苏维埃联邦社会主义共和国,它在政治、文化和经济上主导着联盟。[121]
Following Lenin’s death in 1924, a troika was designated to take charge. Eventually Joseph Stalin, the General Secretary of the Communist Party, managed to suppress all opposition factions and consolidate power in his hands to become the country’s dictator by the 1930s.[122] Leon Trotsky, the main proponent of world revolution, was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929,[123] and Stalin’s idea of Socialism in One Country became the official line.[124] The continued internal struggle in the Bolshevik party culminated in the Great Purge.[125]
【参考译文】1924 年列宁去世后,三驾马车被指定接管政权。最终,共产党总书记约瑟夫·斯大林成功镇压了所有反对派别,巩固了自己手中的权力,并在 20 世纪 30 年代成为国家的独裁者。[122] 世界革命的主要支持者列夫·托洛茨基于 1929 年被流放出苏联,[123] 斯大林的“一国社会主义”思想成为官方路线。[124] 布尔什维克党内持续的斗争最终导致了大清洗。[125]
2.7.2 斯大林主义与现代化 | Stalinism and modernisation
Under Stalin’s leadership, the government launched a command economy, industrialisation of the largely rural country, and collectivisation of its agriculture. During this period of rapid economic and social change, millions of people were sent to penal labour camps, including many political convicts for their suspected or real opposition to Stalin’s rule,[126] and millions were deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union.[127] The transitional disorganisation of the country’s agriculture, combined with the harsh state policies and a drought,[128] led to the Soviet famine of 1932–1933, which killed 5.7[129] to 8.7 million, 3.3 million of them in the Russian SFSR.[130] The Soviet Union, ultimately, made the costly transformation from a largely agrarian economy to a major industrial powerhouse within a short span of time.[131]
【参考译文】在斯大林的领导下,政府推行了计划经济,实现了以农业为主的国家的工业化,并实现了农业集体化。在这一经济和社会快速变革时期,数百万人被送往劳改营,其中包括许多因涉嫌或实际反对斯大林统治而被判处政治犯[126],数百万人被驱逐出境,流放到苏联偏远地区。[127] 国家农业的过渡性混乱,加上严厉的国家政策和干旱,[128] 导致了1932-1933年的苏联饥荒,造成570万[129] 至870万人死亡,其中330万人来自俄罗斯苏维埃联邦社会主义共和国[130]。最终,苏联在短时间内完成了代价高昂的转型,从一个农业经济体转型为一个工业强国。[131]
2.7.3 第二次世界大战与联合国 | World War II and United Nations
Main article: Soviet Union in World War II【主条目:苏联在第二次世界大战中的角色】
The Soviet Union entered World War II on 17 September 1939 with its invasion of Poland,[132] in accordance with a secret protocol within the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany.[133] The Soviet Union later invaded Finland,[134] and occupied and annexed the Baltic states,[135] as well as parts of Romania.[136]: 91–95 On 22 June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union,[137] opening the Eastern Front, the largest theater of World War II.[138]: 7
【参考译文】苏联于1939年9月17日加入第二次世界大战,入侵波兰,[132] 这一行动是根据与纳粹德国签订的《莫洛托夫—里宾特洛甫条约》中的秘密议定书进行的。[133] 随后,苏联又入侵了芬兰,[134] 并占领和吞并了波罗的海三国,[135] 以及罗马尼亚的部分领土。[136]: 91–95 1941年6月22日,德国突然入侵苏联,[137] 开辟了二战中规模最大的战场——东线战场。[138]: 7
Eventually, some 5 million Red Army troops were captured by the Nazis;[139]: 272 the latter deliberately starved to death or otherwise killed 3.3 million Soviet POWs, and a vast number of civilians, as the “Hunger Plan” sought to fulfil Generalplan Ost.[140]: 175–186 Although the Wehrmacht had considerable early success, their attack was halted in the Battle of Moscow.[141] Subsequently, the Germans were dealt major defeats first at the Battle of Stalingrad in the winter of 1942–1943,[142] and then in the Battle of Kursk in the summer of 1943.[143] Another German failure was the Siege of Leningrad, in which the city was fully blockaded on land between 1941 and 1944 by German and Finnish forces, and suffered starvation and more than a million deaths, but never surrendered.[144] Soviet forces steamrolled through Eastern and Central Europe in 1944–1945 and captured Berlin in May 1945.[145] In August 1945, the Red Army invaded Manchuria and ousted the Japanese from Northeast Asia, contributing to the Allied victory over Japan.[146]
【参考译文】最终,约有500万名红军士兵被纳粹俘虏;[139]: 272 其中330万苏联战俘被德军故意饿死或直接杀害,还有大量平民遇害。这一种族灭绝计划被称为“饥饿计划”(Hunger Plan),是更广泛的“东方总计划”(Generalplan Ost)的一部分。[140]: 175–186 尽管德军初期取得了显著胜利,但他们的进攻在莫斯科战役中被成功阻止。[141] 此后,苏军先后在1942–1943年冬季的斯大林格勒战役和1943年夏季的库尔斯克会战中给予德军决定性打击。[142][143] 另一个著名的战役是列宁格勒围城战。从1941年至1944年,这座城市被德军和芬军陆上包围,居民遭受严重饥荒,死亡人数超过一百万,但城市始终未投降。[144] 到1944–1945年,苏军横扫东欧和中欧,并于1945年5月攻占柏林。[145] 1945年8月,红军入侵中国东北,驱逐日本军队,协助盟军战胜日本。[146]
The 1941–1945 period of World War II is known in Russia as the Great Patriotic War.[147] The Soviet Union, along with the United States, the United Kingdom and China were considered the Big Four of Allied powers in World War II, and later became the Four Policemen, which was the foundation of the United Nations Security Council.[148]: 27 During the war, Soviet civilian and military death were about 26–27 million,[149] accounting for about half of all World War II casualties.[150]: 295 The Soviet economy and infrastructure suffered massive devastation, which caused the Soviet famine of 1946–1947.[151] However, at the expense of a large sacrifice, the Soviet Union emerged as a global superpower.[152]
【参考译文】在俄罗斯,1941–1945年的战争被称为“伟大的卫国战争”。[147] 苏联与美国、英国和中国一起被视为二战期间的四大同盟国,并后来成为“四警察”机制,为联合国安全理事会奠定了基础。[148]: 27 战争期间,苏联的军民死亡人数约为2600万至2700万人,[149] 约占整个二战伤亡人数的一半。[150]: 295 苏联的经济和基础设施遭到巨大破坏,导致了1946–1947年的苏联大饥荒。[151] 然而,付出了巨大牺牲之后,苏联崛起为一个全球超级大国。[152]
2.7.4 超级大国与冷战 | Superpower and Cold War
After World War II, according to the Potsdam Conference, the Red Army occupied parts of Eastern and Central Europe, including East Germany and the eastern regions of Austria.[153] Dependent communist governments were installed in the Eastern Bloc satellite states.[154] After becoming the world’s second nuclear power,[155] the Soviet Union established the Warsaw Pact alliance,[156] and entered into a struggle for global dominance, known as the Cold War, with the rivalling United States and NATO.[157]
【参考译文】第二次世界大战结束后,根据波茨坦会议的决定,苏联红军占领了东欧和中欧的部分地区,包括东德和奥地利东部。[153] 在这些被称为“东欧集团”的卫星国中,建立了亲苏的共产党政府。[154] 在成为世界上第二个拥有核武器的国家后,[155] 苏联成立了“华沙条约组织”这一军事同盟,[156] 并与美国及其领导的北约展开了一场全球范围内的对峙,这场长达数十年的紧张局势被称为“冷战”。[157]
2.7.5 赫鲁晓夫解冻改革与经济发展 | Khrushchev Thaw reforms and economic development
After Stalin’s death in 1953 and a short period of collective rule, the new leader Nikita Khrushchev denounced Stalin and launched the policy of de-Stalinization, releasing many political prisoners from the Gulag labour camps.[158] The general easement of repressive policies became known later as the Khrushchev Thaw.[159] At the same time, Cold War tensions reached its peak when the two rivals clashed over the deployment of the United States Jupiter missiles in Turkey and Soviet missiles in Cuba.[160]
【参考译文】1953年斯大林去世后,经过一段短暂的集体领导时期,新领导人尼基塔·赫鲁晓夫开始批判斯大林,并启动了非斯大林化的政策,释放了古拉格劳改营中的许多政治犯。[158] 一般而言,对压抑政策的放宽后来被称为“赫鲁晓夫解冻”。[159] 同时,冷战紧张局势在两国因美国在土耳其部署木星导弹和苏联在古巴部署导弹的问题上发生冲突时达到了顶点。[160]
In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the world’s first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, thus starting the Space Age.[161] Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human to orbit the Earth, aboard the Vostok 1 crewed spacecraft on 12 April 1961.[162]
【参考译文】1957年,苏联发射了世界上第一个人造卫星——斯普特尼克1号,开启了太空时代。[161] 1961年4月12日,俄罗斯宇航员尤里·加加林乘坐东方1号载人飞船成为第一个绕地球轨道飞行的人类。[162] 这些成就不仅标志着苏联在太空竞赛中的领先地位,也体现了赫鲁晓夫时期苏联科技与经济发展的成果。
Following the ousting of Khrushchev in 1964, another period of collective rule ensued, until Leonid Brezhnev became the leader. The era of the 1970s and the early 1980s was later designated as the Era of Stagnation. The 1965 Kosygin reform aimed for partial decentralisation of the Soviet economy.[163] In 1979, after a communist-led revolution in Afghanistan, Soviet forces invaded the country, ultimately starting the Soviet–Afghan War.[164] In May 1988, the Soviets started to withdraw from Afghanistan, due to international opposition, persistent anti-Soviet guerrilla warfare, and a lack of support by Soviet citizens.[165]
【参考译文】1964年赫鲁晓夫被罢免后,苏联进入了一段短暂的集体领导时期,直到列昂尼德·勃列日涅夫成为最高领导人。20世纪70年代至80年代初的这一时期,后来被称为“停滞时代”。1965年,柯西金改革旨在对苏联经济进行部分去中央化调整,以提高效率和生产力。[163] 然而,这一改革未能从根本上改变苏联计划经济体制的僵化问题。1979年,在阿富汗发生由共产党领导的革命后,苏联军队入侵该国,由此引发了长达近十年的苏阿战争。[164] 由于国际社会的强烈反对、阿富汗境内持续不断的反苏游击战,以及苏联国内民众对该战争缺乏支持,苏联于1988年5月开始从阿富汗撤军。[165]
2.7.7 改革、民主化与俄罗斯主权 | Perestroika, democratisation and Russian sovereignty
From 1985 onwards, the last Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, who sought to enact liberal reforms in the Soviet system, introduced the policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to end the period of economic stagnation and to democratise the government.[166] This, however, led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements across the country.[167] Prior to 1991, the Soviet economy was the world’s second-largest, but during its final years, it went into a crisis.[168]
【参考译文】从1985年开始,苏联最后一位领导人米哈伊尔·戈尔巴乔夫试图对苏联体制实施自由化改革,推出了“ Glasnost”(公开性)和“ Perestroika”(重建)政策,旨在结束经济停滞,并实现政府的民主化。[166] 然而,这导致了全国范围内强烈的民族主义和分离主义运动的兴起。[167] 在1991年之前,苏联经济是世界第二大经济体,但在其最后几年中陷入了危机。[168]
By 1991, economic and political turmoil began to boil over as the Baltic states chose to secede from the Soviet Union.[169] On 17 March, a referendum was held, in which the vast majority of participating citizens voted in favour of changing the Soviet Union into a renewed federation.[170] In June 1991, Boris Yeltsin became the first directly elected President in Russian history when he was elected President of the Russian SFSR.[171] In August 1991, a coup d’état attempt by members of Gorbachev’s government, directed against Gorbachev and aimed at preserving the Soviet Union, instead led to the end of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.[172] On 25 December 1991, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, along with contemporary Russia, fourteen other post-Soviet states emerged.[173]
【参考译文】到1991年,随着波罗的海国家选择脱离苏联,经济和政治动荡开始加剧。[169] 1991年3月17日举行了一次全民公投,绝大多数参与投票的公民支持将苏联改组为一个新的联邦。[170] 1991年6月,鲍里斯·叶利钦成为俄罗斯历史上首位直接选举产生的总统,当选为俄罗斯苏维埃联邦社会主义共和国总统。[171]1991年8月,由戈尔巴乔夫政府成员发动的一场政变企图推翻戈尔巴乔夫并试图保留苏联,结果却导致了苏联共产党解体。[172] 1991年12月25日,在苏联解体之后,除了当代俄罗斯,还有其他十四个后苏联国家也应运而生。[173] 这标志着苏联时代的终结以及新独立国家的诞生。
2.8 独立的俄罗斯联邦 | Independent Russian Federation
Main article: History of Russia (1991–present)【主条目:1991年至今的俄罗斯历史】
Further information: Presidency of Boris Yeltsin, Russia under Vladimir Putin, and Presidency of Dmitry Medvedev
【进一步信息:鲍里斯·叶利钦的总统任期、弗拉基米尔·普京领导下的俄罗斯、德米特里·梅德韦杰夫的总统任期】
2.8.1 向市场经济转型与政治危机 | Transition to a market economy and political crises
The economic and political collapse of the Soviet Union led Russia into a deep and prolonged depression. During and after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, wide-ranging reforms including privatisation and market and trade liberalisation were undertaken, including radical changes along the lines of “shock therapy“.[174] The privatisation largely shifted control of enterprises from state agencies to individuals with inside connections in the government, which led to the rise of Russian oligarchs.[175] Many of the newly rich moved billions in cash and assets outside of the country in an enormous capital flight.[176] The depression of the economy led to the collapse of social services—the birth rate plummeted while the death rate skyrocketed,[177][178] and millions plunged into poverty,[179] while extreme corruption,[180] as well as criminal gangs and organised crime rose significantly.[181]
【参考译文】苏联的经济和政治崩溃使俄罗斯陷入了一场深刻而漫长的经济萧条。在苏联解体期间及之后,俄罗斯进行了广泛的经济改革,包括私有化以及市场和贸易自由化,其中许多改革采取了以“休克疗法”为特征的激进措施。[174] 这场私有化过程主要将企业的控制权从国家机构转移到与政府内部有密切关系的个人手中,由此催生了俄罗斯的寡头阶层。[175] 许多新贵将数十亿美元的资金和资产转移至海外,形成了大规模的资本外逃。[176]经济的衰退导致社会服务体系崩溃,出生率急剧下降,死亡率则迅速上升,[177][178] 数以百万计的人陷入贫困。[179] 同时,腐败现象极其严重,[180] 黑帮势力和有组织犯罪也大幅增加。[181]
In late 1993, tensions between Yeltsin and the Russian parliament culminated in a constitutional crisis which ended violently through military force. During the crisis, Yeltsin was backed by Western governments, and over 100 people were killed.[182]
【参考译文】1993年晚些时候,叶利钦与俄罗斯议会之间的紧张关系最终演变成一场宪法危机,并以军事手段暴力收场。在此次危机中,叶利钦得到了西方政府的支持,事件中共造成超过百人死亡。[182]
2.8.2 现代自由宪法、国际合作与经济稳定 | Modern liberal constitution, international cooperation and economic stabilisation
In December, a referendum was held and approved, which introduced a new constitution, giving the president enormous powers.[183] The 1990s were plagued by armed conflicts in the North Caucasus, both local ethnic skirmishes and separatist Islamist insurrections.[184] From the time Chechen separatists declared independence in the early 1990s, an intermittent guerrilla war was fought between the rebel groups and Russian forces.[185] Terrorist attacks against civilians were carried out by Chechen separatists, claiming the lives of thousands of Russian civilians.[Most notably the Budyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis, the Russian apartment bombings, the Moscow theater hostage crisis, and the Beslan school siege][186]
【参考译文】1993年12月,俄罗斯举行全民公投并通过了新宪法,这部宪法赋予总统极大的权力。[183] 1990年代,北高加索地区冲突不断,既有地方民族间的摩擦,也有伊斯兰分离主义势力的武装叛乱。[184] 自车臣分离主义者在1990年代初宣布独立以来,反政府武装与俄罗斯军队之间便展开了断断续续的游击战。[185] 车臣分离主义者还对平民发动恐怖袭击,造成数千名俄罗斯公民丧生。[最著名的是布琼诺夫斯克医院人质危机、俄罗斯公寓爆炸案、莫斯科剧院人质危机和别斯兰学校人质事件][186]
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia assumed responsibility for settling the latter’s external debts.[187] In 1992, most consumer price controls were eliminated, causing extreme inflation and significantly devaluing the rouble.[188] High budget deficits coupled with increasing capital flight and inability to pay back debts, caused the 1998 Russian financial crisis, which resulted in a further GDP decline.[189]
【参考译文】苏联解体后,俄罗斯承担了前苏联遗留下来的外债偿还责任。[187] 1992年,大多数消费品的价格管制被取消,导致通货膨胀飙升,卢布大幅贬值。[188] 高额的财政赤字、日益加剧的资本外逃以及无力偿还债务,最终引发了1998年俄罗斯金融危机,进一步导致国内生产总值(GDP)下滑。[189]
2.8.3 迈向现代化经济、政治集权与民主倒退 | Movement towards a modernised economy, political centralisation and democratic backsliding
Further information: Putinism【更多信息:普京主义】
On 31 December 1999, President Yeltsin unexpectedly resigned,[190] handing the post to the recently appointed prime minister and his chosen successor, Vladimir Putin.[191] Putin then won the 2000 presidential election,[192] and defeated the Chechen insurgency in the Second Chechen War.[193]
【参考译文】1999年12月31日,总统叶利钦出人意料地宣布辞职,[190] 将总统职位移交给时任总理、其指定的继任者弗拉基米尔·普京。[191] 随后,普京赢得了2000年的总统大选,[192] 并在第二次车臣战争中击败了车臣叛军,稳定了国内局势。[193]
Putin won a second presidential term in 2004.[194] High oil prices and a rise in foreign investment saw the Russian economy and living standards improve significantly.[195] Putin’s rule increased stability, while transforming Russia into an authoritarian state.[196] In 2008, Putin took the post of prime minister, while Dmitry Medvedev was elected President for one term, to hold onto power despite legal term limits;[197] this period has been described as a “tandemocracy“.[198]
【参考译文】2004年,普京成功赢得第二个总统任期。[194] 在此期间,油价高涨和外国投资增加显著推动了俄罗斯经济发展,人民生活水平大幅提升。[195] 普京的统治带来了社会稳定,但同时也使俄罗斯逐渐转变为一个威权国家。[196]2008年,普京依照法律不得连任总统,他转而担任总理职务,同时支持德米特里·梅德韦杰夫当选总统,完成了一次权力安排上的“换位”。[197] 这一时期被外界称为“双头执政”(tandemocracy)。[198]
Following a diplomatic crisis with neighbouring Georgia, the Russo-Georgian War took place during 1–12 August 2008, resulting in Russia recognising two separatist states in the territories that it occupies in Georgia.[199] It was the first European war of the 21st century.[200] The 2008 constitutional amendments saw the terms of the president extend to six years and the lower house (State Duma) to five years.[201] Putin then went on to win the 2012 presidential election, which fueled the “Snow Revolution” protests.[202]
【参考译文】在与邻国格鲁吉亚发生外交危机后,2008 年 8 月 1 日至 12 日爆发了俄格战争,导致俄罗斯承认其占领的格鲁吉亚领土上有两个分离主义国家。[199] 这是 21 世纪的第一次欧洲战争。[200] 2008 年宪法修正案将总统任期延长至 6 年,下议院(国家杜马)任期延长至 5 年。[201] 普京随后赢得 2012 年总统大选,这引发了“雪地革命”抗议活动。[202]
2.8.4 入侵乌克兰 | Invasion of Ukraine
Main article: Russian invasion of Ukraine【主条目:俄罗斯入侵乌克兰】
In early 2014, following a pro-Western revolution in neighbouring Ukraine, Russia annexed Crimea after a disputed referendum on the status of Crimea was staged under Russian occupation.[203][204] The annexation generated an insurgency in the Donbas region of Ukraine, supported by Russian military intervention as part of an undeclared war against Ukraine.[205] Russian mercenaries and military forces, with the support of local separatist militias, waged a war in eastern Ukraine against the new Ukrainian government after the Russian government fostered anti-government and pro-Russian protests in the region,[206] although most residents had opposed secession from Ukraine.[207] Amidst nationwide protests against corruption,[208] Putin was re-elected for his second consecutive term in the 2018 presidential election.[209]
【参考译文】2014 年初,邻国乌克兰爆发亲西方革命,俄罗斯占领下就克里米亚的地位举行了有争议的全民公投,随后吞并了克里米亚。[203][204] 吞并克里米亚引发了乌克兰顿巴斯地区的叛乱,俄罗斯的军事干预是针对乌克兰不宣而战的一部分,也为该地区带来了支持。[205] 在俄罗斯政府在乌克兰东部地区煽动反政府和亲俄抗议活动后,俄罗斯雇佣军和军队在当地分离主义民兵的支持下,对乌克兰新政府发动了战争,[206]尽管大多数居民反对乌克兰分裂出去。[207]在全国范围内反腐败抗议的浪潮中,[208] 普京在 2018 年总统选举中再次当选,连续第二届任期。[209]
In a major escalation of the conflict, Russia launched a full-scale invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022.[210] The invasion marked the largest conventional war in Europe since World War II,[211] and was met with international condemnation,[212] as well as expanded sanctions against Russia.[213]
【参考译文】2022 年 2 月 24 日,俄罗斯对乌克兰发动了全面入侵,导致冲突大幅升级。[210] 这次入侵是第二次世界大战以来欧洲最大规模的常规战争,[211] 遭到国际社会谴责,[212] 俄罗斯也因此遭受了扩大制裁。[213]
As a result, Russia was expelled from the Council of Europe in March,[214] and was suspended from the United Nations Human Rights Council in April.[215] In September, following successful Ukrainian counteroffensives,[216] Putin announced a “partial mobilisation“, Russia’s first mobilisation since Operation Barbarossa.[217] In the end of September, Putin proclaimed the annexation of four partially-occupied Ukrainian regions, the largest annexation in Europe since World War II.[218] Putin and Russian-installed leaders signed treaties of accession, internationally unrecognised and widely denounced as illegal.[218] As a result of the invasion, hundreds of thousands of people are estimated to have been killed or injured,[219][220] while Russia has been accused of numerous war crimes.[221][222][223] The war in Ukraine has further exacerbated Russia’s demographic crisis.[224]
【参考译文】结果,俄罗斯于 3 月被逐出欧洲委员会[214],并于 4 月被暂停在联合国人权理事会的会员资格。[215] 9 月,在乌克兰成功反攻后[216],普京宣布“部分动员”,这是俄罗斯自巴巴罗萨行动以来的首次动员。[217] 9 月底,普京宣布吞并四个部分被占领的乌克兰地区,这是自二战以来欧洲最大规模的吞并行动。[218] 普京和俄罗斯扶植的领导人签署了加入条约,但这些条约未得到国际社会承认,并被广泛谴责为非法。[218] 据估计,入侵造成数十万人伤亡[219][220],而俄罗斯则被指控犯有多项战争罪。[221][222][223]乌克兰战争进一步加剧了俄罗斯的人口危机。[224]
In June 2023, the Wagner Group, a private military contractor fighting for Russia in Ukraine, declared an open rebellion against the Russian Ministry of Defence, capturing Rostov-on-Don, before beginning a march on Moscow. However, after negotiations between Wagner and the Belarusian government, the rebellion was called off.[225][226] The leader of the rebellion, Yevgeny Prigozhin, was later killed in a plane crash.[227] Putin won his third consecutive term in the 2024 presidential election, by winning 88% of the vote, the highest percentage in a presidential election in post-Soviet Russia.[228]
【参考译文】2023年6月,在乌克兰为俄罗斯作战的私人军事承包商瓦格纳集团宣布公开反抗俄罗斯国防部,占领了顿河畔罗斯托夫,并开始向莫斯科进军。然而,在瓦格纳集团与白俄罗斯政府谈判后,叛乱被叫停。[225][226] 叛乱领导人叶夫根尼·普里戈津后来在一次飞机失事中丧生。[227] 普京在2024年总统大选中赢得了88%的选票,这是后苏联时期俄罗斯总统选举中的最高得票率,赢得了他的第三个连任。[228]
3. 地理 | Geography
Main article: Geography of Russia / 主条目:俄罗斯地理
Russia’s vast landmass stretches over the easternmost part of Europe and the northernmost part of Asia.[229][230] It spans the northernmost edge of Eurasia and has the world’s fourth-longest coastline, of over 37,653 km (23,396 mi).[Russia has an additional 850 km (530 mi) of coastline along the Caspian Sea, which is the world’s largest inland body of water, and has been variously classified as a sea or a lake.[231]][232] Russia lies between latitudes 41° and 82° N, and longitudes 19° E and 169° W, extending some 9,000 km (5,600 mi) east to west, and 2,500 to 4,000 km (1,600 to 2,500 mi) north to south.[233] Russia, by landmass, is larger than three continents,[Russia, by land area, is larger than the continents of Australia, Antarctica, and Europe, although it covers a large part of the latter itself. Its land area could be roughly compared to that of South America.] and has the same surface area as Pluto.[234]
【参考译文】俄罗斯广袤的陆地横跨欧洲最东部和亚洲最北部。[229][230] 它位于欧亚大陆的最北端,拥有世界第四长的海岸线,总长度超过37,653公里(23,396英里)。[俄罗斯在里海沿岸还拥有额外的850公里(530英里)海岸线。里海是世界上最大的内陆水域,既被称为“海”,也被归类为“湖”。[231]][232] 俄罗斯的地理坐标介于北纬41°至82°、东经19°至西经169°之间,东西方向绵延约9,000公里(5,600英里),南北方向宽达2,500至4,000公里(1,600至2,500英里)。[233] 从陆地面积来看,俄罗斯比三个大洲还要广阔[俄罗斯的陆地面积超过了澳大利亚、南极洲和欧洲这三个大洲,尽管它本身占据了欧洲的很大一部分。从陆地面积来看,俄罗斯的大小大致相当于南美洲。],其表面积与冥王星相当。[234]
Russia has nine major mountain ranges, and they are found along the southernmost regions, which share a significant portion of the Caucasus Mountains (containing Mount Elbrus, which at 5,642 m (18,510 ft) is the highest peak in Russia and Europe);[6] the Altai and Sayan Mountains in Siberia; and in the East Siberian Mountains and the Kamchatka Peninsula in the Russian Far East (containing Klyuchevskaya Sopka, which at 4,750 m (15,584 ft) is the highest active volcano in Eurasia).[235][229] The Ural Mountains, running north to south through the country’s west, are rich in mineral resources, and form the traditional boundary between Europe and Asia.[236] The lowest point in Russia and Europe, is situated at the head of the Caspian Sea, where the Caspian Depression reaches some 29 metres (95.1 ft) below sea level.[237]
【参考译文】俄罗斯境内有九座主要山脉,大多分布于南部地区。其中包括高加索山脉的大片区域(包含海拔5,642米(18,510英尺)的厄尔布鲁士山,这是俄罗斯及欧洲的最高峰);[6] 西伯利亚地区的阿尔泰山脉和萨彦岭;以及位于东西伯利亚山地和俄罗斯远东地区的堪察加半岛(包含海拔4,750米(15,584英尺)的克柳切夫火山,是欧亚大陆最高的活火山)。[235][229]乌拉尔山脉自北向南贯穿俄罗斯西部,矿产资源丰富,传统上被认为是欧洲与亚洲之间的分界线。[236] 俄罗斯及欧洲的最低点位于里海北部的里海洼地(Caspian Depression),海拔低于海平面约29米(95.1英尺)。[237]
Russia, as one of the world’s only three countries bordering three oceans,[230] has links with a great number of seas.[Russia borders, clockwise, to its southwest: the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, to its west: the Baltic Sea, to its north: the Barents Sea (White Sea, Pechora Sea), the Kara Sea, the Laptev Sea, and the East Siberian Sea, to its northeast: the Chukchi Sea and the Bering Sea, and to its southeast: the Sea of Okhotsk and the Sea of Japan.][229] Its major islands and archipelagos include Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land, Severnaya Zemlya, the New Siberian Islands, Wrangel Island, the Kuril Islands (four of which are disputed with Japan), and Sakhalin.[238][239] The Diomede Islands, administered by Russia and the United States, are just 3.8 km (2.4 mi) apart;[240] and Kunashir Island of the Kuril Islands is merely 20 km (12.4 mi) from Hokkaido, Japan.[2]
【参考译文】俄罗斯是世界上仅有的三个濒临三大洋的国家之一,[230] 与众多海域相连。[俄罗斯的国土按顺时针方向依次为:西南邻黑海、亚速海,西邻波罗的海,北邻巴伦支海(白海、伯朝拉海)、喀拉海、拉普捷夫海、东西伯利亚海,东北邻楚科奇海、白令海,东南邻鄂霍次克海、日本海。][229] 其主要岛屿和群岛包括新地岛、法兰士约瑟夫地群岛、北地群岛、新西伯利亚群岛、弗兰格尔岛、千岛群岛(其中四个岛屿与日本存在争议)、以及萨哈林岛(库页岛)。[238][239] 迪奥米德群岛由俄罗斯和美国分别控制,两岛之间仅相距3.8公里(2.4英里);[240] 千岛群岛中的国后岛距离日本北海道也只有20公里(12.4英里)。[2]
Russia, home of over 100,000 rivers,[230] has one of the world’s largest surface water resources, with its lakes containing approximately one-quarter of the world’s liquid fresh water.[229] Lake Baikal, the largest and most prominent among Russia’s fresh water bodies, is the world’s deepest, purest, oldest and most capacious fresh water lake, containing over one-fifth of the world’s fresh surface water.[241] Ladoga and Onega in northwestern Russia are two of the largest lakes in Europe.[230] Russia is second only to Brazil by total renewable water resources.[242] The Volga in western Russia, widely regarded as Russia’s national river, is the longest river in Europe and forms the Volga Delta, the largest river delta in the continent.[243] The Siberian rivers of Ob, Yenisey, Lena, and Amur are among the world’s longest rivers.[244]
【参考译文】俄罗斯境内拥有超过10万条河流,[230] 是全球地表水资源最丰富的国家之一,其湖泊中储存着约占世界四分之一的液态淡水。[229] 贝加尔湖是俄罗斯最大的淡水水体,也是世界上最深、最纯净、最古老、蓄水量最大的淡水湖,储存了全球超过五分之一的地表淡水。[241] 位于俄罗斯西北部的拉多加湖和奥涅加湖则是欧洲最大的两个湖泊。[230] 按可再生淡水资源总量计算,俄罗斯仅次于巴西。[242]伏尔加河位于俄罗斯西部,被广泛视为俄罗斯的“母亲河”,是欧洲最长的河流,并形成了欧洲最大的河流三角洲——伏尔加三角洲。[243] 西伯利亚地区的鄂毕河、叶尼塞伊河、勒拿河和阿穆尔河(黑龙江)则是世界上最长的河流之一。[244]
3.1 气候 | Climate
Main article: Climate of Russia【主条目:俄罗斯的气候】
The size of Russia and the remoteness of many of its areas from the sea result in the dominance of the humid continental climate throughout most of the country, except for the tundra and the extreme southwest. Mountain ranges in the south and east obstruct the flow of warm air masses from the Indian and Pacific oceans, while the European Plain spanning its west and north opens it to influence from the Atlantic and Arctic oceans.[229] Most of northwest Russia and Siberia have a subarctic climate, with extremely severe winters in the inner regions of northeast Siberia (mostly Sakha, where the Northern Pole of Cold is located with the record low temperature of −71.2 °C or −96.2 °F),[238] and more moderate winters elsewhere. Russia’s vast coastline along the Arctic Ocean and the Russian Arctic islands have a polar climate.[229]
【参考译文】俄罗斯幅员辽阔,许多地区远离海洋,导致全国大部分地区以湿润大陆性气候为主,仅极地苔原地区和西南部极端地区例外。南部和东部的山脉阻挡了来自印度洋和太平洋的暖空气进入,而西部和北部横贯欧洲平原则使俄罗斯易受大西洋和北冰洋气流的影响。[229] 俄罗斯西北部和西伯利亚大部分地区属于副极地气候。东北西伯利亚地区(主要是萨哈共和国)冬季极其严寒,那里是“北半球寒极”所在地,曾记录到最低气温为−71.2°C(−96.2°F);其他地区的冬季则相对温和一些。[238]沿北冰洋的广阔海岸线以及俄罗斯所属的北极岛屿则属于极地气候。[229]
The coastal part of Krasnodar Krai on the Black Sea, most notably Sochi, and some coastal and interior strips of the North Caucasus possess a humid subtropical climate with mild and wet winters.[229] In many regions of East Siberia and the Russian Far East, winter is dry compared to summer, while other parts of the country experience more even precipitation across seasons. Winter precipitation in most parts of the country usually falls as snow. The westernmost parts of Kaliningrad Oblast and some parts in the south of Krasnodar Krai and the North Caucasus have an oceanic climate.[229] The region along the Lower Volga and Caspian Sea coast, as well as some southernmost slivers of Siberia, possess a semi-arid climate.[245]
【参考译文】克拉斯诺达尔边疆区沿黑海的部分地区(尤其是索契),以及北高加索的一些沿海和内陆地带拥有湿润的亚热带气候,冬季温和多雨。[229]在东西伯利亚和俄罗斯远东地区的许多地方,冬季降水少于夏季;而国内其他地区则四季降水较为均匀。全国大部分地区的冬季降水通常以降雪形式出现。加里宁格勒州的最西端,以及克拉斯诺达尔边疆区南部和北高加索部分地区属于海洋性气候。[229] 伏尔加下游沿岸与里海沿岸地区,以及西伯利亚最南端的一些狭长地带则属于半干旱气候。[245]
Throughout much of the territory, there are only two distinct seasons, winter and summer, as spring and autumn are usually brief.[229] The coldest month is January (February on the coastline); the warmest is usually July. Great ranges of temperature are typical. In winter, temperatures get colder both from south to north and from west to east. Summers can be quite hot, even in Siberia.[246] Climate change in Russia is causing more frequent wildfires,[247] and thawing the country’s large expanse of permafrost.[248]
【参考译文】在全国大部分地区,一年中只有两个明显的季节——冬季和夏季,春季和秋季通常非常短暂。[229] 最冷的月份是1月(沿海地区为2月),最热的月份通常是7月。气温变化幅度巨大是俄罗斯气候的典型特征。冬季时,气温由南向北、由西向东逐渐降低。夏季甚至在西伯利亚也可能相当炎热。[246]气候变化正在对俄罗斯产生显著影响,导致森林野火发生频率增加,[247] 并加速了该国大面积永久冻土层的融化。[248]
3.2 生物多样性 | Biodiversity
Main article: Wildlife of Russia【主条目:俄罗斯的野生动物】
See also: List of ecoregions in Russia【参见:俄罗斯的生态区域列表】
Russia, owing to its gigantic size, has diverse ecosystems, including polar deserts, tundra, forest tundra, taiga, mixed and broadleaf forest, forest steppe, steppe, semi-desert, and subtropics.[249] About half of Russia’s territory is forested,[6] and it has the world’s largest area of forest,[250] which sequester some of the world’s highest amounts of carbon dioxide.[250][251]
【参考译文】由于其巨大的面积,俄罗斯拥有多种多样的生态系统,包括极地沙漠、苔原、森林苔原、泰加林(北方针叶林)、混交林和阔叶林、森林草原、草原、半荒漠以及亚热带地区。[249] 大约一半的俄罗斯领土被森林覆盖,[6] 拥有世界上面积最大的森林,这些森林固定了全球相当一部分的二氧化碳。[250][251]
Russian biodiversity includes 12,500 species of vascular plants, 2,200 species of bryophytes, about 3,000 species of lichens, 7,000–9,000 species of algae, and 20,000–25,000 species of fungi. Russian fauna is composed of 320 species of mammals, over 732 species of birds, 75 species of reptiles, about 30 species of amphibians, 343 species of freshwater fish (high endemism), approximately 1,500 species of saltwater fishes, 9 species of cyclostomata, and approximately 100–150,000 invertebrates (high endemism).[249][252] Approximately 1,100 rare and endangered plant and animal species are included in the Russian Red Data Book.[249]
【参考译文】俄罗斯的生物多样性极为丰富,包括约12,500种维管植物、2,200种苔藓植物、约3,000种地衣、7,000至9,000种藻类,以及20,000至25,000种真菌。动物方面,俄罗斯拥有320种哺乳动物、超过732种鸟类、75种爬行动物、约30种两栖动物、343种淡水鱼类(具有高度特有性)、约1,500种海水鱼类、9种圆口动物,以及大约10万至15万种无脊椎动物(同样具有高度特有性)。[249][252]目前,约有1,100种珍稀和濒危的动植物被列入《俄罗斯红皮书》。[249]
Russia’s entirely natural ecosystems are conserved in nearly 15,000 specially protected natural territories of various statuses, occupying more than 10% of the country’s total area.[249] They include 45 biosphere reserves,[253] 64 national parks, and 101 nature reserves.[254] Although in decline, the country still has many ecosystems which are still considered intact forest, mainly in the northern taiga areas, and the subarctic tundra of Siberia.[255] Russia had a Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 9.02 in 2019, ranking 10th out of 172 countries, and the first ranked major nation globally.[256]
【参考译文】为了保护其纯天然的生态系统,俄罗斯设立了近15,000个不同保护级别的特别保护区,总面积超过全国国土面积的10%。[249] 这些保护区包括45个生物圈保护区、[253] 64个国家公园,以及101个自然保护区。[254]尽管面临压力,俄罗斯仍然保留着大量完整的自然生态系统,主要集中在北部的泰加林地区以及西伯利亚的亚北极苔原地带。[255] 根据2019年发布的“森林景观完整性指数”(Forest Landscape Integrity Index),俄罗斯以9.02分的平均得分在全球172个国家中排名第10位,并在世界主要国家中排名第一。[256]
4. 政府和政治 | Government and politics
Main article: Politics of Russia / 主条目:俄罗斯政治
Russia, by constitution, is a symmetric federal republic with a semi-presidential system, wherein the president is the head of state,[257] and the prime minister is the head of government.[6][258] It is structured as a multi-party representative democracy,[258] with the federal government composed of three branches:[259]
【参考译文】根据宪法,俄罗斯是一个实行半总统制的对称联邦共和国,总统是国家元首[257],总理是政府首脑。[6][258]俄罗斯实行多党代议制民主政体,[258]联邦政府由三个部门组成:[259]
- Legislative: The bicameral Federal Assembly of Russia, made up of the 450-member State Duma and the 170-member Federation Council,[259] adopts federal law, declares war, approves treaties, has the power of the purse and the power of impeachment of the president.[260]
【参考译文】立法: 俄罗斯联邦议会实行两院制,由450名成员的国家杜马和170名成员的联邦委员会组成[259],联邦会议有权制定联邦法律,宣战,批准条约,拥有财政大权和弹劾总统的权力。[260] - Executive: The president is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces, and appoints the Government of Russia (Cabinet) and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies.[257] The president may issue decrees of unlimited scope, so long as they do not contradict the constitution or federal law.[261]
【参考译文】行政:总统是武装部队总司令,任命俄罗斯政府(内阁)和其他官员,负责管理和执行联邦法律和政策。[257] 总统可以颁布不受限制的法令,只要它们不与宪法或联邦法律相抵触。[261] - Judiciary: The Constitutional Court, Supreme Court and lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the Federation Council on the recommendation of the president,[259] interpret laws and can overturn laws they deem unconstitutional.[262]
【参考译文】司法机构:宪法法院、最高法院和下级联邦法院,其法官由联邦委员会根据总统的推荐任命[259],负责解释法律,并可推翻他们认为违宪的法律。[262]
The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term and may be elected no more than twice.[263][ In 2020, constitutional amendments were signed into law that limit the president to two terms overall rather than two consecutive terms, with this limit reset for current and previous presidents.[264]] Ministries of the government are composed of the premier and his deputies, ministers, and selected other individuals; all are appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister (whereas the appointment of the latter requires the consent of the State Duma). United Russia is the dominant political party in Russia, and has been described as “big tent” and the “party of power“.[265][266]
【参考译文】总统由普选产生,任期六年,连选连任不得超过两届。[263][2020年,宪法修正案正式签署成为法律,规定总统总共不得超过两次任期,而不是此前规定的不得连任两届。该限制对现任及前任总统重新计算任期次数。[264]] 政府各部由总理及其副手、部长和其他指定人员组成;所有人员均由总统根据总理的推荐任命(而总理的任命则需经国家杜马同意)。统一俄罗斯党是俄罗斯的主要政党,被称为“大帐篷”和“权力党”。[265][266]
Post-Soviet Russia was a flawed democracy during the presidency of Boris Yeltsin.[267]: 223 However, following the presidencies of Vladimir Putin and Dmitry Medvedev, it has experienced significant democratic backsliding.[267]: 223 [268][269] The political system evolved from electoral authoritarianism into a consolidated authoritarian regime.[267]: 323 [270] Some political scientists have characterized Putin as the head of a dictatorship,[8][9][271] or a personalist regime.[272][273][270] Putin’s second tenure as president has led to further autocratization,[267]: 512 [274]: 80–81 which has been the most significant since the Soviet era,[275][276] with some authors suggesting a regeneration of totalitarian elements.[277][278] Putin’s ruling policies are generally referred to as Putinism.[279]
【参考译文】在弗拉基米尔·普京和德米特里·梅德韦杰夫担任总统之后,俄罗斯经历了严重的民主倒退。[267]:223[268][269] 政治体制从选举威权主义演变为巩固的威权政体。[267]:323[270] 一些政治学家将普京描述为独裁政权的首脑,[8][9][271] 或个人主义政权。[272][273][270] 普京的第二次总统任期导致了进一步的独裁化,[267]:512[274]:80-81 这是自苏联时代以来最重大的一次,[275][276] 一些作者认为极权主义因素正在再生。[277][278]普京的执政政策通常被称为普京主义。[279]
4.1 行政区划 | Political divisions
Main article: Political divisions of Russia【主条目:俄罗斯的行政区划】
主条目:俄罗斯联邦主体
Russia, by constitution, is a symmetric (with the possibility of an asymmetric configuration) federation. Unlike the Soviet asymmetric model of the RSFSR, where only republics were “subjects of the federation”, the current constitution raised the status of other regions to the level of republics and made all regions equal with the title “subject of the federation”. The regions of Russia have reserved areas of competence, but regions do not have sovereignty, do not have the status of a sovereign state, do not have the right to indicate any sovereignty in their constitutions and do not have the right to secede from the country. The laws of the regions cannot contradict federal laws.[280]
【参考译文】根据宪法,俄罗斯是一个对称型(也可能呈现非对称结构)联邦制国家。与苏联时期俄罗斯苏维埃联邦社会主义共和国(RSFSR)的非对称联邦模式不同,在旧体制下只有“共和国”才是“联邦主体”,而现行宪法提升了其他地区(如边疆区、州、自治区等)的地位,使它们与共和国享有平等权利,并统称为“联邦主体”。这些联邦主体拥有保留的职权范围,但并不具备主权,也没有作为主权国家的法律地位,不得在其宪法中宣称任何主权内容,也无权脱离俄罗斯联邦。此外,各联邦主体的地方法律不得与联邦法律相抵触。[280]
The federal subjects[Including bodies on territory disputed between Russia and Ukraine whose annexation has not been internationally recognised: the Republic of Crimea and the federal city of Sevastopol since the annexation of Crimea in 2014,[1] and territories set up following the Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts in 2022.] have equal representation—two delegates each—in the Federation Council, the upper house of the Federal Assembly.[281] They do, however, differ in the degree of autonomy they enjoy.[282] The federal districts of Russia were established by Putin in 2000 to facilitate central government control of the federal subjects.[283] Originally seven, currently there are eight federal districts, each headed by an envoy appointed by the president.[284]
【参考译文】在俄罗斯联邦议会的上议院——联邦委员会中,所有联邦主体[包括俄罗斯与乌克兰存在领土争议、且其并入俄罗斯的决定未获国际承认的地区:自2014年克里米亚被吞并以来的克里米亚共和国和联邦城市塞瓦斯托波尔;[1] 以及2022年俄罗斯吞并顿涅茨克、赫尔松、卢甘斯克和扎波罗热州后设立的相应行政实体。]享有平等代表权,每个主体各派出两名代表。[281] 尽管如此,各主体在自治程度上仍存在差异。[282]为了加强中央政府对联邦主体的管理,普京于2000年设立了联邦管区制度。最初设立七个联邦管区,目前增加至八个,每个联邦管区由总统任命的全权代表领导。[283][284]
俄罗斯联邦目前由89个不同的联邦主体组成:
- (图中绿色)24个享有较大自由的自治共和国,这些共和国往往是少数民族聚居区,但其中克里米亚共和国、卢甘斯克人民共和国及顿涅茨克人民共和国未被国际普遍承认为俄罗斯领土。
- (图中黄色) 48个州,但其中扎波罗热州及赫尔松州未被国际普遍承认为俄罗斯领土。
- (图中橙色) 9个边疆区
- (图中深蓝色) 4个自治区
- (图中紫色) 1个自治州—犹太自治州
- (图中红色) 3个联邦直辖市—莫斯科、圣彼得堡及塞瓦斯托波尔,但其中的塞瓦斯托波尔未被国际普遍承认为俄罗斯领土。
2000年5月13日,普京签发命令决定按地域原则在俄罗斯建立7个联邦管区(中央联邦管区、西北联邦管区、南部联邦管区、伏尔加联邦管区、乌拉尔联邦管区、西伯利亚联邦管区、远东联邦管区)。
2010年1月19日,梅德韦杰夫签发命令决定自南部联邦管区内分立出一个新的联邦管区–北高加索联邦管区。
2014年3月21日,普京签发命令决定在克里米亚半岛增设一个新的联邦管区–克里米亚联邦管区。至此俄罗斯的联邦管区达至9个,分别为中央联邦管区、西北联邦管区、南部联邦管区、北高加索联邦管区、伏尔加联邦管区、乌拉尔联邦管区、西伯利亚联邦管区、远东联邦管区及克里米亚联邦管区。
2016年7月28日,俄罗斯总统普京签署命令,南部联邦管区和克里米亚联邦管区合并为新的南部联邦管区。联邦管区减至8个(中央联邦管区、西北联邦管区、南部联邦管区、伏尔加联邦管区、乌拉尔联邦管区、西伯利亚联邦管区、远东联邦管区、北高加索联邦管区)。
2018年11月,普京签署总统令,将布里亚特共和国、后贝加尔边疆区划归远东联邦区,不再属于西伯利亚联邦区。
4.1.1 主要城市
主条目:俄罗斯城市列表
- 莫斯科,俄罗斯联邦首都,全国政治、经济、科学文化及交通中心,同时也是俄联邦主体中莫斯科州的首府。整个莫斯科人口达到了14,612,602(市区人口:10,472,629),是欧洲人口最多的城市,占据了整个俄罗斯人口的1/10。莫斯科面积1,081平方公里,市区东西长30公里,南北长40公里。建城于1147年,迄今已有800余年的历史。此外在苏联时期,莫斯科是1980年奥运会的主办城市。
- 圣彼得堡,位于俄罗斯西北部,芬兰湾沿岸,始建于1703年。圣彼得堡与莫斯科同为俄罗斯联邦直辖市,同时它也是俄联邦主体中列宁格勒州的首府、俄罗斯最大海港城市和仅次于莫斯科的第二大城市。
- 伏尔加格勒,位于伏尔加河沿岸,始建于1589年,1925年4月10日改称斯大林格勒,1961年改称伏尔加格勒,是俄罗斯南部伏尔加格勒州的首府。
- 叶卡捷琳堡,位于乌拉尔山东麓,1723年建城。现在是乌拉尔联邦区中心城市和斯维尔德洛夫斯克州首府。该城历来都是俄罗斯重要的工业中心,也是乌拉尔地区最大城市。
- 新西伯利亚,位于鄂毕河畔,1893年建城,是新西伯利亚州首府和俄罗斯人口第三大城市,也是俄罗斯著名的科学城。
4.1.2 领土争端
现俄罗斯主要的领土争端之一为南千岛群岛(日本方面称北方四岛)。第二次世界大战结束后,日本无条件投降,苏联根据雅尔塔协议取得千岛群岛,苏联解体后由俄罗斯接管。日本一直向俄罗斯交涉并要求归还南千岛群岛,目前仍在谈判中。领土的争议使日本和俄罗斯自战后一直没有签署正式的和平协议。
2014年,乌克兰进行广场革命后,俄罗斯入侵并吞并了乌克兰的克里米亚半岛[34]。吞并未获得国际承认,联合国大会通过第68/262号决议,申明“乌克兰在其国际公认边界内的领土完整”,同时特别指出克里米亚公投“一概无效,不能成为改变克里米亚自治共和国或塞瓦斯托波尔市地位的基础”[35][36]。
2022年9月27日,普京宣布吞并乌克兰顿涅茨克州、赫尔松州、卢甘斯克州和扎波罗热州,约为乌克兰15%的国土,成为自二战以来欧洲最大规模的领土侵占企图[37]。此举同样未获国际承认并被联合国谴责[38]。
4.2 对外关系 | Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Russia【主条目:俄罗斯的对外关系】
主条目:俄罗斯外交
另请参见“Category:俄罗斯外交”和“Category:俄罗斯双边关系”。
Russia has the world’s sixth-largest diplomatic network as of 2024. It maintains diplomatic relations with 187 United Nations member states, two partially-recognised states,[291] and two United Nations observer states, along with 143 embassies.[292] Russia is one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. It is generally described as a great power,[293][294][295][296] though it has been questioned whether it can retain this status.[297][298] Russia is also a former superpower as the leading constituent of the former Soviet Union.[152] and the legal successor to Soviet foreign policies.[299] It is a member of the G20, the OSCE, and the APEC—and the leading member of organisations such as the CIS,[300] the EAEU,[301] the CSTO,[302] and the SCO.[303] Russia was also a member of the G8 (now the G7) and part of the Council of Europe before its expulsion from the two groups in 2014 and 2022, respectively.[304][305]
【参考译文】截至2024年,俄罗斯拥有世界第六大的外交网络。它与187个联合国成员国、两个部分被承认的国家保持外交关系,并与两个联合国观察员国建交,同时在全球设有143个大使馆。[292] 俄罗斯是联合国安理会五个常任理事国之一,通常被视为世界大国,[293][294][295][296] 尽管也有人质疑其是否仍能维持这一地位。[297][298]作为前苏联的主要继承国,俄罗斯也是曾经的超级大国,[152] 并在法律上继承了苏联的外交政策。[299] 它是二十国集团(G20)、欧洲安全与合作组织(OSCE)和亚太经合组织(APEC)的成员,同时也是多个由其主导的国际组织的核心成员,包括独立国家联合体(CIS),[300] 欧亚经济联盟(EAEU),[301] 集体安全条约组织(CSTO),[302] 以及上海合作组织(SCO)。[303] 此外,俄罗斯曾是八国集团(G8,现为七国集团G7)和欧洲委员会的成员,但分别于2014年和2022年被这两个组织中除名。[304][305]
Russia maintains close relations with neighbouring Belarus, which is a part of the Union State, a supranational confederation of the two states.[306] Serbia has been a historically close ally of Russia, as both countries share a strong mutual cultural, ethnic, and religious affinity.[307] From the 21st century, relations between Russia and China have significantly strengthened bilaterally and economically due to shared political interests.[308] India is the largest customer of Russian military equipment, and the two countries share a strong strategic and diplomatic relationship since the Soviet era.[309] Russia wields great political influence across the geopolitically important South Caucasus and Central Asia, and the two regions have been described as being part of Russia’s “backyard”[310][311] or “near abroad”.[299][312]
【参考译文】俄罗斯与其邻国白俄罗斯保持着密切关系,两国组成了一个超国家联邦体制——“联盟国家”(Union State)。[306] 塞尔维亚历史上一直是俄罗斯的亲密盟友,两国在文化、民族和宗教方面有着深厚的联系。[307] 自21世纪以来,由于共同的政治利益,俄罗斯与中国在双边关系和经济合作方面显著加强。[308] 印度是俄罗斯军事装备的最大买家,自苏联时代起,两国就建立了牢固的战略和外交关系。[309]俄罗斯在地缘政治上具有重要地位的南高加索和中亚地区拥有巨大的政治影响力,这两个区域常被称为俄罗斯的“后院”[310][311] 或“近邻外国”。[299][312]
Russia shares a complex strategic, energy, and defence relationship with Turkey.[313] It maintains cordial relations with Iran, as it is a strategic and economic ally.[314] Russia has also significantly developed its relations with North Korea following its invasion of Ukraine in 2022, with increased defence co-operation.[315] At the same time, its relations with neighbouring Ukraine and the Western world—specifically the United States and the collective countries of the European Union and NATO—have collapsed.[316][317]
【参考译文】俄罗斯与土耳其有着复杂的战略、能源和防务关系。[313] 作为俄罗斯的战略和经济盟友,俄罗斯与伊朗保持着友好的关系。[314] 2022年朝鲜入侵乌克兰后,俄罗斯与朝鲜的关系也显著发展,防务合作也随之加强。[315] 与此同时,俄罗斯与邻国乌克兰以及西方世界(特别是美国、欧盟和北约成员国)的关系却破裂。[316][317]
In the 21st century, Russia has pursued an aggressive foreign policy aimed at securing regional dominance in Europe and increasing its international influence, as well as increasing domestic support for the government. It has initiated military interventions in the post-Soviet states of Georgia and Ukraine, as well as in Syria during its prolonged civil war in a bid to increase its influence in the Middle East.[318] Russia has also increasingly pushed to expand its influence across the Arctic,[319] the Asia–Pacific,[320] Africa[321] and Latin America.[322] Two-thirds of the world’s population, specifically the developing countries of the Global South, are either neutral or leaning towards Russia politically.[323][324] Russia has also continued using subversive tactics to increase perceptions of its geopolitical power in its rival countries,[325][293] including cyberwarfare, disinformation campaigns,[326] sabotage attacks,[327] assassination attempts,[328] airspace violations,[329] electoral interferences,[330] and nuclear saber-rattling.[331]
【参考译文】进入21世纪,俄罗斯奉行积极的外交政策,旨在巩固其在欧洲地区的主导地位,提升其国际影响力,并增加国内对政府的支持。为了增强其在中东的影响力,俄罗斯对后苏联国家格鲁吉亚和乌克兰以及长期内战中的叙利亚进行了军事干预。[318]俄罗斯还日益扩大其在北极[319]、亚太地区[320]、非洲[321]和拉丁美洲[322]的影响力。世界三分之二的人口,特别是全球南方的发展中国家,在政治上要么持中立态度,要么倾向于俄罗斯。[323][324]俄罗斯还继续使用颠覆性手段来提升其对手国家对其地缘政治力量的认知,[325][293]包括网络战、虚假宣传活动、[326]破坏性袭击、[327]暗杀企图、[328]侵犯领空、[329]干预选举[330]和核武威胁。[331]
4.2.1 俄乌关系
主条目:俄罗斯—乌克兰关系
参见:乌克兰危机、俄乌战争、2021年-2022年俄乌冲突和2022年俄罗斯入侵乌克兰
4.2.2 俄白联盟
主条目:俄白联盟国和白俄罗斯-俄罗斯关系
俄白联盟的前身是俄白共同体,1997年俄罗斯和白俄罗斯签订《俄罗斯和白俄罗斯联盟条约》和联盟宪章而设立。1999年底,双方又签署了关于建立联盟国家的条约,将联盟关系提升为建立一个一体化的联盟国家的关系。目标是以邦联制(类似于欧盟现在的形式)在外交和经济以及货币上进行一体化,近期目标是在2013年统一货币。但此协议在政治现实下,近十年已经无人再提。但仍在持续进行中。
4.2.4 中俄关系
主条目:中华人民共和国—俄罗斯联邦关系
1547年,原是欧洲国家的俄国自伊万四世起向东扩张。伊万四世在1552年攻灭喀山汗国,令俄罗斯能够越过乌拉尔山脉吞并地域辽阔的西伯利亚,后与中国的领土接壤,亦因此能够使俄自清代以来,通过战争、不平等条约、调停占领了清国的一些领土。从沙俄至苏联占领的清国的固有领土包括(自东向西):库页岛、乌苏里江以东土地、黑龙江北至外兴安岭土地、贝加尔湖以东土地、唐努乌梁海等约171万平方公里。苏联又于第二次世界大战时通过对日作战乘机控制中国东北。另外,苏联在中国共产党的成立与建立政权,以及外蒙古独立事件中起了关键作用。
苏联时期,国共内战后,中国工业化项目的发展一直受到苏联的很大帮助,建立起重工业体系,直到后来决裂,项目中断,到了1989年两国外交关系才恢复。
苏联解体后,俄罗斯和中国的关系继续巩固和发展。2004年10月17日后,中国外长李肇星与俄罗斯外长谢尔盖·拉夫罗夫在北京签署《中华人民共和国和俄罗斯联邦关于中俄国界东段的补充协定》,在原来签署的《中苏东段国界协定》、《中俄西段国界协定》的基础上,确定两国分割黑瞎子岛。
4.2.5 日俄关系
主条目:日俄关系
1904年2月6日-1905年9月5日,当时日本和俄罗斯帝国为争夺在朝鲜半岛和当时的满洲地区(即中国东北)的利益爆发了日俄战争,并以沙俄战败而告终。
自日本在第二次世界大战被苏联占据南千岛群岛,1945年8月日本战败后,苏联以战胜国为由占领该岛群,拒不奉还。自苏联解体后,1990年代叶利钦作为俄罗斯联邦总统,日俄开始就南千岛群岛进行谈判,但双方分歧仍然存在。而民间的日俄合作渐见兴起,例如允许日本人到南库页岛旅游。
然而,自从在2011年开始,日本和俄罗斯关于南千岛群岛的争夺变得明显和紧张。俄罗斯的态度是坚决保卫南千岛群岛,并有高官多次登岛视察。相比日本方面更多地趋于谴责。[50]甚至于日本黑社会组织山口组寄给俄罗斯驻日本大使馆子弹以示威胁。[51]尽管日本政府呼吁本国民众不要持有俄罗斯签证登岛,但仍然还是有一些少数日本人以此方式踏入登岛。[52]
4.2.6 俄美关系
主条目:俄美关系
4.2.7 俄北关系
主条目:俄罗斯—北约关系
4.2.8 俄欧关系
主条目:俄罗斯—欧盟关系
4.3 军事 | Military
Main article: Russian Armed Forces【主条目:俄罗斯武装力量】
The Russian Armed Forces are divided into the Ground Forces, the Navy, and the Aerospace Forces—and there are also two independent arms of service: the Strategic Missile Troops and the Airborne Troops.[333][6] As of 2025, the military have 1.1 million active-duty personnel, which is the world’s fifth-largest, and about 1.5 million reserve personnel.[334] It is mandatory for all male citizens aged 18–27 to be drafted for a year of service in the Armed Forces.[6]
【参考译文】俄罗斯武装力量分为三个主要军种:陆军(地面部队)、海军和空天军;此外还有两个独立兵种:战略导弹部队和空降兵部队。[333][6] 截至2025年,俄罗斯现役军人约有110万人,是世界上现役兵力第五多的国家,此外还有约150万预备役人员。[334] 所有年龄在18至27岁之间的男性公民都必须服兵役,征兵期限为一年。[6]
Russia is among the five recognised nuclear-weapons states, with the world’s largest stockpile of nuclear weapons; over half of the world’s nuclear weapons are owned by Russia.[335] Russia possesses the second-largest fleet of ballistic missile submarines,[336] and is one of the only three countries operating strategic bombers.[337] As of 2023, Russia maintains the world’s third-highest military expenditure, spending $109 billion, corresponding to about 5.9% of its GDP.[338] It is also the third-largest arms exporter,[338] and has a large and indigenous defence industry, which produces the majority of its military equipment.[339][340][341]
【参考译文】俄罗斯是五个被国际承认的拥有核武器的国家之一,拥有全球最大的核武储备,世界超过一半的核武器归俄罗斯所有。[335] 俄罗斯还拥有世界第二大弹道导弹潜艇舰队,[336] 并是仅有的三个部署战略轰炸机的国家之一。[337]截至2023年,俄罗斯是全球军事开支第三高的国家,军费支出达1090亿美元,约占其国内生产总值(GDP)的5.9%。[338] 它也是世界第三大武器出口国,[338] 拥有规模庞大、自给自足的国防工业体系,大部分军事装备都由本国制造。[339][340][341]
4.4 人权 | Human rights
Main article: Human rights in Russia【主条目:俄罗斯人权】

图片题注:Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, anti-war protests broke out across Russia. The protests have been met with widespread repression, leading to about 15,000 people being arrested.[354]
参考译文:2022年俄罗斯入侵乌克兰后,俄罗斯各地爆发反战抗议活动。抗议活动遭到大范围镇压,导致约15000人被捕。[354]
图片来源:Владислав Постников
Violations of human rights in Russia have been increasingly reported by leading democracy and human rights groups. In particular, Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch say that Russia is not democratic and allows few political rights and civil liberties to its citizens.[342][343]
【参考译文】俄罗斯侵犯人权的行为日益受到主流民主和人权组织的报道。国际特赦组织和人权观察组织尤其指出,俄罗斯并不民主,公民享有的政治权利和公民自由极少。[342][343]
Since 2004, Freedom House has ranked Russia as “not free” in its Freedom in the World survey.[344] Since 2011, the Economist Intelligence Unit has ranked Russia as an “authoritarian regime” in its Democracy Index, ranking it 150th out of 167 countries in 2024.[345] In regards to media freedom, Russia was ranked 162nd out of 180 countries in Reporters Without Borders‘ Press Freedom Index for 2024.[346] The Russian government has been widely criticised by political dissidents and human rights activists for unfair elections,[347] crackdowns on opposition political parties and protests,[348][349] persecution of non-governmental organisations and enforced suppression and killings of independent journalists,[350][351][352] and censorship of mass media and internet.[353]
【参考译文】自2004年以来,自由之家在其世界自由度调查中将俄罗斯列为“不自由”国家。[344] 自2011年以来,经济学人智库在其民主指数中将俄罗斯列为“威权政权”,2024年在167个国家中排名第150位。[345] 在新闻自由方面,无国界记者组织发布的2024年新闻自由指数显示,俄罗斯在180个国家中排名第162位。[346]俄罗斯政府因选举不公[347]、镇压反对派政党和抗议活动[348][349]、迫害非政府组织、强制镇压和杀害独立记者[350][351][352]以及审查大众媒体和互联网[353],受到政治异见人士和人权活动人士的广泛批评。
Muslims, especially Salafis, have faced persecution in Russia.[355][356] To quash the insurgency in the North Caucasus, Russian authorities have been accused of indiscriminate killings,[357] arrests, forced disappearances, and torture of civilians.[358][359] In Dagestan, some Salafis along with facing government harassment based on their appearance, have had their homes blown up in counterinsurgency operations.[360][361] Chechens and Ingush in Russian prisons reportedly take more abuse than other ethnic groups.[362] During the 2022 invasion of Ukraine, Russia has set up filtration camps where many Ukrainians are subjected to abuses and forcibly sent to Russia; the camps have been compared to those used in the Chechen Wars.[363][364] Political repression also increased following the start of the invasion, with laws adopted that establish punishments for “discrediting” the armed forces.[365]
【参考译文】穆斯林,尤其是萨拉菲派,在俄罗斯遭受迫害。[355][356] 为了镇压北高加索地区的叛乱,俄罗斯当局被指控滥杀无辜、[357]逮捕、强迫失踪和对平民实施酷刑。[358][359] 在达吉斯坦,一些萨拉菲派不仅因其外貌而面临政府骚扰,他们的家园还在反叛乱行动中被炸毁。[360][361] 据报道,俄罗斯监狱中的车臣人和印古什人比其他族裔受到更多的虐待。[362] 在 2022 年入侵乌克兰期间,俄罗斯设立了过滤营,许多乌克兰人在那里遭受虐待并被强行送往俄罗斯;这些营地被拿来与车臣战争中使用的营地作比较。[363][364]入侵开始后,政治压迫也加剧,政府出台了法律,对“抹黑”武装部队的行为设定了惩罚措施。[365]
Russia has introduced several restrictions on LGBTQ rights. In 2013, an anti-LGBTQ law banning “gay propaganda” was unanimously passed by the State Duma and the Federation Council, later being signed into law by Vladimir Putin.[366] In 2020, the Russian parliament legalized a constitutional ban on same-sex marriage,[367] and in 2021 the Ministry of Justice designated the LGBTQ rights group Russian LGBT Network as a “foreign agent“.[368] In 2022, further amendments were made to the 2013 anti-LGBTQ law.[369] In 2023, the Russian parliament passed a bill banning gender reassignment surgery for transgender people and the Supreme Court of Russia banned the international LGBTQ movement as “extremist”, outlawing it in the country.[370][371] In 2024, the Supreme Court issued the first convictions from the latter ruling.[372]
【参考译文】俄罗斯对 LGBTQ 权利出台了多项限制。2013 年,国家杜马和联邦委员会一致通过了一项禁止“同性恋宣传”的反 LGBTQ 法,后来由弗拉基米尔·普京签署成为法律。[366] 2020 年,俄罗斯议会将宪法禁止同性婚姻合法化;[367] 2021 年,司法部将 LGBTQ 权利组织俄罗斯 LGBT 网络指定为“外国代理人”。[368] 2022 年,对 2013 年反 LGBTQ 法进行了进一步修订。[369] 2023 年,俄罗斯议会通过了一项法案,禁止跨性别者进行性别重置手术,俄罗斯最高法院以“极端主义”为由禁止国际 LGBTQ 运动,并在俄罗斯境内取缔该运动。[370][371] 2024 年,最高法院根据后者的裁决首次作出有罪判决。[372]
4.5 法律、腐败和犯罪 | Law, corruption and crime
Main articles: Law of Russia, Law enforcement in Russia, Crime in Russia, and Corruption in Russia
【主要文章:俄罗斯法律、俄罗斯执法、俄罗斯犯罪和俄罗斯腐败】

图片题注:Opposition leader Alexei Navalny leading protestors in Moscow in the nationwide anti-corruption protests of 2017–2018
参考译文:反对派领导人阿列克谢·纳瓦尔尼 (Alexei Navalny) 在 2017-2018 年全国反腐败抗议活动中领导莫斯科抗议者
图片来源:Evgeny Feldman
Post-Soviet Russia under the regime of Vladimir Putin has been governed by a form of crony capitalism.[373][374] Its political system has been variously described as a kleptocracy,[375] an oligarchy,[376] and a plutocracy.[373] As of 2024, it is the lowest rated European country in Transparency International‘s annual Corruption Perceptions Index, ranking 154th out of the 180 countries listed.[377]
【参考译文】在弗拉基米尔·普京的领导下,后苏联时代的俄罗斯实行裙带资本主义统治。[373][374] 其政治体制被描述为盗贼统治、[375] 寡头政治[376] 和财阀政治[373]。截至2024年,俄罗斯是透明国际年度腐败感知指数中评分最低的欧洲国家,在180个国家中排名第154位。[377]
Corruption has significantly increased following the collapse of the Soviet Union,[378] and is seen as a significant issue in society.[379][380] It affects various sectors, including the economy,[379] the government,[381] law enforcement,[382] healthcare,[383][384] education,[385] and the military.[386] Russia’s shadow economy was estimated to be about 44% of the total GDP in 2018.[387] Penal military units have been deployed as storm troops during the ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War since 2022, such as the Storm-Z and Storm-V units.[388][389] According to estimates by the BBC, around 48,000 prisoners were recruited to fight for the Wagner Group.[390]
【参考译文】苏联解体后,腐败现象显著增加[378],并被视为社会上的一个重大问题。[379][380] 它影响到各个领域,包括经济、[379] 政府、[381] 执法、[382] 医疗保健、[383][384] 教育、[385] 和军队。[386] 据估计,2018 年俄罗斯的影子经济约占 GDP 总量的 44%。[387] 自 2022 年以来,在持续的俄乌战争中,刑事军事单位已被部署为突击部队,例如 Storm-Z 和 Storm-V 部队。[388][389]据英国广播公司估计,约有 48,000 名囚犯被招募为瓦格纳集团作战。[390]
The primary and fundamental statement of laws in Russia is the constitution. Statutes, such as the Russian Civil Code and the Russian Criminal Code, are the predominant legal sources of Russian law.[391][392] Russia has the largest incarcerated population in Europe, and the fifth-largest incarcerated population in the world.[393] Its incarceration rate is among the highest in Europe,[394] although the number has fallen steadily, by 59% since 2000.[393] As of 2021, Russia’s intentional homicide rate stood at 6.8 per 100,000 people.[395] In 2023, Russia had the world’s second-largest illegal arms trade market, after the United States, was described as a key hub for human trafficking, and was ranked first in Europe and 19th globally in the Global Organized Crime Index.[396]
【参考译文】俄罗斯法律的主要和基本规定是宪法。《俄罗斯民法典》和《俄罗斯刑法典》等成文法是俄罗斯法律的主要法律来源。[391][392] 俄罗斯是欧洲监禁人口最多的国家,也是世界第五大监禁人口国家。[393] 俄罗斯的监禁率在欧洲名列前茅,[394] 尽管这一数字一直在稳步下降,自 2000 年以来下降了 59%。[393] 截至 2021 年,俄罗斯的故意杀人率为每 10 万人 6.8 人。[395] 2023 年,俄罗斯拥有仅次于美国的世界第二大非法武器贸易市场,被描述为人口贩运的主要枢纽,在全球有组织犯罪指数中位居欧洲第一、全球第 19 位。[396]
5. 经济 | Economy
Main article: Economy of Russia / 主条目:俄罗斯经济
Further information: Economic history of the Russian Federation and Taxation in Russia
【更多信息:俄罗斯联邦经济史和俄罗斯税收】
Russia has a high-income,[397] industrialized,[398] mixed market-oriented economy following a turbulent transition from the Soviet planned model during the 1990s.[399][400][401][402] It has the eleventh-largest economy by nominal GDP and the fourth-largest economy by GDP (PPP). As of 2023, the service sector accounts for roughly 57% of total GDP, followed by the industrial sector (30%), while the agricultural sector is the smallest, at 3% of total GDP.[6] Russia’s foreign exchange reserves are the fifth-largest in the world.[403] It has a labour force of about 73 million, which is the eighth-largest in the world.[404] As of 2023, Russia’s largest trading partner by total import and export volume is China.[405]
【参考译文】俄罗斯在20世纪90年代从苏联计划模式经历了动荡的转型后,成为了一个高收入、[397]工业化、[398]混合市场导向的经济。[399][400][401][402] 按名义GDP计算,它是世界第十一大经济体,按GDP(购买力平价)计算,它是世界第四大经济体。截至2023年,服务业约占GDP总量的57%,其次是工业部门(30%),而农业部门最小,仅占GDP总量的3%。[6] 俄罗斯的外汇储备位居世界第五。[403] 它拥有约7300万劳动力,是世界第八大劳动力。[404]截至 2023 年,俄罗斯进出口总额最大的贸易伙伴是中国。[405]
Russia’s human development is ranked as “very high” in the annual Human Development Index.[407] Roughly 70% of Russia’s total GDP is driven by domestic consumption,[408][clarification needed]and the country has the world’s twelfth-largest consumer market.[409] Russia has the fifth-highest number of billionaires in the world.[410] However, its income inequality remains comparatively high compared to other developed countries.[411] The variance of natural resources among its federal subjects has also led to regional economic disparities.[412][413] High levels of corruption,[414] a shrinking labor force,[415] and an aging and declining population also remain major barriers to future economic growth.[416][417]
【参考译文】俄罗斯的人类发展水平在年度《人类发展指数》(HDI)中被评为“极高”。[407] 俄罗斯的国内生产总值(GDP)中,约有70%来自国内消费驱动,[408][需要澄清] 该国是全球第十二大消费市场。[409] 此外,俄罗斯拥有世界第五多的亿万富翁人数。[410]然而,与其它发达国家相比,俄罗斯的收入不平等程度仍然较高。[411] 各联邦主体之间自然资源分布的差异也导致了区域间的经济不平衡。[412][413] 此外,严重的腐败问题、[414] 劳动力人口减少、[415] 以及人口老龄化和总体人口下降,仍是制约未来经济增长的主要障碍。[416][417]
Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the country has faced extensive sanctions and other negative financial actions from the Western world and its allies which have the aim of isolating the Russian economy from the Western financial system.[418] However, Russia has completed its transition into a war economy,[419] and has shown resilience to such measures broadly, maintaining economic stability and growth—driven primarily by high military expenditure,[420] rising household consumption and wages,[421] low unemployment,[422] and increased government spending.[423] Yet, inflation has remained comparatively high,[424] with experts predicting the sanctions will have a long-term negative effect on the Russian economy.[425]
【参考译文】自2022年俄罗斯入侵乌克兰以来,西方国家及其盟友对俄罗斯实施了广泛的制裁和其他金融限制措施,旨在将俄罗斯经济从西方金融体系中孤立出去。[418] 然而,俄罗斯已基本完成向战时经济的转型,[419] 并在总体上展现出对这些措施的一定韧性,维持了经济的稳定甚至增长——主要得益于大幅增加的军事开支、[420] 居民消费和工资的增长、[421] 失业率保持低位、[422] 以及政府支出的增加。[423]不过,通货膨胀率仍相对较高,[424] 许多专家预测,这些制裁将对俄罗斯经济产生长期的负面影响。[425]
5.1 交通和能源 | Transport and energy
Main articles: Transport in Russia and Energy in Russia【主条目:俄罗斯的交通和俄罗斯的能源】
主条目:俄罗斯交通
Railway transport in Russia is mostly controlled by the state-run Russian Railways. The total length of common-used railway tracks is the world’s third-longest, exceeding 87,000 km (54,100 mi).[426] As of 2019, Russia has the world’s fifth-largest road network, with over 1.5 million km of roads.[427] However, its road density is among the world’s lowest, in part to its vast land area.[428] Russia’s inland waterways are the longest in the world, totaling 102,000 km (63,380 mi).[429] It has over 900 airports,[430] ranking seventh in the world, of which the busiest is Sheremetyevo International Airport in Moscow. The largest ports include the Port of Novorossiysk, the Great Port of Saint Petersburg and the Port of Vladivostok.[431]
【参考译文】俄罗斯的铁路运输主要由国有的俄罗斯铁路公司控制。共用铁路轨道总长度居世界第三,超过了87,000公里(54,100英里)。[426] 截至2019年,俄罗斯拥有世界上第五大的公路网络,公路总长度超过150万公里。[427] 然而,由于其广大的国土面积,俄罗斯的道路密度是世界上最低的国家之一。[428] 俄罗斯的内河航道是世界上最长的,总长度达到102,000公里(63,380英里)。[429]俄罗斯有超过900个机场,在世界上排名第七,其中最繁忙的是莫斯科的谢列梅捷沃国际机场。[430] 主要港口包括新罗西斯克港、圣彼得堡大港和符拉迪沃斯托克港。[431]
Russia has one of the world’s largest amounts of energy resources throughout its vast landmass, particularly natural gas and oil, which play a crucial role in its energy self-sufficiency and exports.[399] It has been widely described as an energy superpower.[433] Russia has the world’s largest proven gas reserves,[434] the second-largest coal reserves,[435] the eighth-largest proven oil reserves,[436] and the largest oil shale reserves in Europe.[437] As of 2023, it is also the second-largest producer[438] and the third-largest exporter of natural gas,[439] as well as the second-largest producer and exporter of crude oil.[440] Russia’s large oil and gas sector accounted for 30% of its federal budget revenues in 2024, down from 50% in the mid-2010s, suggesting economic diversification.[441]
【参考译文】俄罗斯在其广袤的国土上拥有世界上最丰富的能源资源之一,尤其是天然气和石油,在其能源自给和出口中发挥着关键作用。[399] 俄罗斯被广泛称为“能源超级大国”。[443] 俄罗斯拥有全球已探明天然气储量最多的国家,[434] 第二大煤炭储量,[435] 第八大已探明石油储量,[436] 以及欧洲最大的油页岩储量。[437]截至2023年,俄罗斯是世界第二大天然气生产国、第三大天然气出口国,[439] 同时也是世界第二大原油生产和出口国。[440] 在2024年,俄罗斯庞大的油气行业贡献了联邦预算收入的30%,而这一比例在2010年代中期曾高达50%,表明该国经济正在逐步实现多元化。[441]
Russia is the world’s third-largest energy producer as of 2023.[442] Fossil fuels account for over 64% of energy production and 87% of energy consumption.[443] Natural gas is by far the largest source of energy, comprising over half of the energy production and 42% of electricity consumption.[443] Russia was the first country to develop civilian nuclear power, building the world’s first nuclear power plant in 1954, and remains a pioneer in nuclear energy technology and is considered a world leader in fast neutron reactors.[444] Russia is the world’s fourth-largest nuclear energy producer, which accounts for roughly one-fourth of energy generation (18%).[445][need quotation to verify]Russian energy policy aims to expand the role of nuclear energy and develop new reactor technology.[444] Russia is the sole country that builds and operates nuclear-powered icebreakers,[446] which ease navigation along the Northern Sea Route,[446]: 192 and aid in utilizing its Arctic policy in its continental shelf.[447]
【参考译文】截至2023年,俄罗斯是全球第三大能源生产国。[442] 化石燃料占能源总产量的64%以上,占能源消费总量的87%。其中,天然气是迄今为止最重要的能源来源,占能源总产量的一半以上,占电力消费的42%。[443]俄罗斯是世界上第一个发展民用核能的国家,于1954年建成了世界上第一座核电站,并一直是核能技术的先驱,被认为是快中子反应堆领域的全球领先者。[444] 目前,俄罗斯是全球第四大核能生产国,核能约占全国发电量的四分之一(18%)。[445](注:需引用具体资料验证)俄罗斯的能源政策目标是扩大核能在能源结构中的比重,并研发新型反应堆技术。[444] 俄罗斯是目前唯一一个设计并运营核动力破冰船的国家,这些破冰船有助于打通北方海航道的航行,[446]: 192 并支持其大陆架地区的北极开发战略。[447]
Russia joined the Paris Agreement on climate change in 2015, and ratified the agreement in 2019.[448] Its greenhouse gas emissions are the fourth-largest in the world as of 2023.[449] Coal accounts for over 16% of energy generation.[443] Russia is the fifth-largest hydroelectric producer as of 2022,[450] with hydroelectric power contributing almost a fifth to the total energy generation (17%).[443] Though it is the eighth-largest renewable energy producer as of 2023, the use and development of other renewable energy resources remain negligible,[443] as Russia is among the few countries without strong governmental or public support for a renewable energy transition.[445]
【参考译文】俄罗斯于2015年加入《巴黎气候协定》,并于2019年正式批准该协定。[448] 截至2023年,俄罗斯是全球温室气体排放量第四大的国家。[449] 煤炭占能源总产量的16%以上。[443] 截至2022年,俄罗斯是世界第五大水力发电国,水电占全国总发电量的近五分之一(17%)。[443]尽管截至2023年俄罗斯是世界第八大可再生能源生产国,但其他可再生能源的使用和发展仍非常有限。[443] 俄罗斯是少数几个缺乏政府或公众对可再生能源转型提供强有力支持的国家之一。[445]
5.2 农业和渔业 | Agriculture and fishery
Main articles: Agriculture in Russia and Fishing industry in Russia【主条目:俄罗斯的农业和俄罗斯的渔业】
Agriculture, forestry and fishing contributes about 3.3% of the country’s total GDP as of 2023.[451] It has the world’s fourth-largest cultivated area, at 1,265,267 square kilometres (488,522 sq mi). However, due to the harshness of its environment, only about 13.1% of its land is agricultural,[6] with an additional 7.4% being arable.[452] The country’s agricultural land is considered part of the “breadbasket” of Europe.[453] More than one-third of the sown area is devoted to fodder crops, and the remaining farmland is used industrial crops, vegetables, and fruits.[454] The main product of Russian farming has always been grain, which occupies well over half the cropland.[454] Russia is the world’s largest exporter of wheat and the largest producer of barley and buckwheat.[405][455] It is also among the largest exporters of maize and sunflower oil, as well as the leading producer of fertiliser.[455][405]
【参考译文】截至2023年,农业、林业和渔业对俄罗斯国内生产总值(GDP)的贡献率约为3.3%。[451] 俄罗斯拥有世界第四大的耕地面积,达到1,265,267平方公里(488,522平方英里)。然而,由于气候环境严酷,全国仅有约13.1%的土地用于农业用途,其中可耕地仅占7.4%。[452] 俄罗斯的农业用地被认为是欧洲的“粮仓”之一。[453]该国超过三分之一的播种面积用于种植饲料作物,其余农田则用于种植工业作物、蔬菜和水果。[454] 谷物一直是俄罗斯农业的主要产品,占据了超过一半的耕地面积。[454] 俄罗斯是全球最大的小麦出口国,同时也是大麦和荞麦的最大生产国。[405][455] 此外,俄罗斯还是玉米和葵花籽油的主要出口国之一,也是化肥产量最高的国家。[455][405]
Various analysts of climate change adaptation foresee large opportunities for Russian agriculture during the rest of the 21st century as arability increases in Siberia, which would lead to both internal and external migration to the region.[456] Owing to its large coastline along three oceans and twelve marginal seas, Russia maintains the world’s sixth-largest fishing industry, capturing nearly 5 million tons of fish in 2018.[457] It is home to the world’s finest caviar, the beluga, and produces about one-third of all canned fish and some one-fourth of the world’s total fresh and frozen fish.[458]
【参考译文】多位气候变化适应性研究专家预测,在21世纪剩余的时间里,随着西伯利亚地区的可耕地面积增加,俄罗斯农业将迎来巨大的发展机遇,这将引发该地区内部及外部人口向西伯利亚迁移的趋势。[456]得益于其沿三个大洋和十二个边缘海的漫长海岸线,俄罗斯拥有世界第六大的渔业产业,2018年的捕鱼量接近500万吨。[457] 俄罗斯出产世界上最优质的鱼子酱——白鲟鱼子酱,并生产约占全球三分之一的罐装鱼类食品,以及约四分之一的新鲜和冷冻鱼类。[458]
5.3 科技 | Science and technology
Main article: Science and technology in Russia【主条目:俄罗斯的科学技术】
See also: Timeline of Russian innovation, List of Russian scientists, and List of Russian inventors
【另请参阅:俄罗斯创新时间表、俄罗斯科学家名单和俄罗斯发明家名单】
Russia spent about 1% of its GDP on research and development in 2019, with the world’s tenth-highest budget.[459] It also ranked tenth worldwide in the number of scientific publications in 2020, with roughly 1.3 million papers.[460] Since 1904, Nobel Prize were awarded to 26 Soviets and Russians in physics, chemistry, medicine, economy, literature and peace.[461] Russia ranked 60th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024, down from 45th in 2021.[462][463]
【参考译文】2019 年,俄罗斯的研发支出约占 GDP 的 1%,预算位居世界第十。[459] 2020 年,俄罗斯的科学出版物数量也位居世界第十,约有 130 万篇论文。[460] 自 1904 年以来,共有 26 位苏联人和俄罗斯人获得了诺贝尔奖,获奖领域包括物理学、化学、医学、经济学、文学和和平。[461] 俄罗斯在 2024 年全球创新指数中排名第 60 位,低于 2021 年的第 45 位。[462][463]
Since the times of Nikolay Lobachevsky, who pioneered the non-Euclidean geometry, and Pafnuty Chebyshev, a prominent tutor, Russian mathematicians became among the world’s most influential.[464] Dmitry Mendeleev invented the Periodic table, the main framework of modern chemistry.[465] Nine Soviet and Russian mathematicians have been awarded with the Fields Medal. Grigori Perelman was offered the first ever Clay Millennium Prize Problems Award for his final proof of the Poincaré conjecture in 2002, as well as the Fields Medal in 2006.[466]
【参考译文】自非欧几里得几何的先驱尼古拉·罗巴切夫斯基和著名导师帕夫努蒂·切比雪夫时代以来,俄罗斯数学家成为世界上最具影响力的数学家之一。[464] 德米特里·门捷列夫发明了元素周期表,这是现代化学的主要框架。[465] 九位苏联和俄罗斯数学家获得菲尔兹奖。格里戈里·佩雷尔曼于2002年因对庞加莱猜想的最终证明而获得了首个克莱千禧难题奖,并于2006年获得了菲尔兹奖。[466]
Alexander Popov was among the inventors of radio,[467] while Nikolai Basov and Alexander Prokhorov were co-inventors of laser and maser.[468] Oleg Losev made crucial contributions in the field of semiconductor junctions, and discovered light-emitting diodes.[469] Vladimir Vernadsky is considered one of the founders of geochemistry, biogeochemistry, and radiogeology.[470] Élie Metchnikoff is known for his groundbreaking research in immunology.[471] Ivan Pavlov is known chiefly for his work in classical conditioning.[472] Lev Landau made fundamental contributions to many areas of theoretical physics.[473]
【参考译文】亚历山大·波波夫(Alexander Popov)是无线电的发明人之一;[467] 尼古拉·巴索夫(Nikolai Basov)和亚历山大·普罗霍罗夫(Alexander Prokhorov)则是激光和脉泽(maser)的共同发明者。[468] 奥列格·洛谢夫(Oleg Losev)在半导体结领域做出了重要贡献,并发现了发光二极管(LED)。[469] 弗拉基米尔·维尔纳茨基(Vladimir Vernadsky)被认为是地球化学、生物地球化学和放射地质学的奠基人之一。[470]埃黎耶·梅契尼可夫(Élie Metchnikoff)以其在免疫学领域的开创性研究而闻名;[471] 伊万·巴甫洛夫(Ivan Pavlov)则主要因其在经典条件反射方面的研究而著称。[472] 列夫·朗道(Lev Landau)在理论物理的多个领域做出了基础性的贡献。[473]
Nikolai Vavilov was best known for having identified the centres of origin of cultivated plants.[474] Trofim Lysenko was known mainly for Lysenkoism.[475] Many famous Russian scientists and inventors were émigrés. Igor Sikorsky was an aviation pioneer.[476] Vladimir Zworykin was the inventor of the iconoscope and kinescope television systems.[477] Theodosius Dobzhansky was the central figure in the field of evolutionary biology for his work in shaping the modern synthesis.[478] George Gamow was one of the foremost advocates of the Big Bang theory.[479]
【参考译文】尼古拉·瓦维洛夫(Nikolai Vavilov)最著名的成就是确定了栽培植物的起源中心;[474] 特罗菲姆·李森科(Trofim Lysenko)则因“李森科主义”而为人所知。[475]许多著名的俄罗斯科学家和发明家是移民海外的侨民。例如,伊戈尔·西科斯基(Igor Sikorsky)是航空领域的先驱;[476] 弗拉基米尔·兹沃里金(Vladimir Zworykin)是图标管(iconoscope)和显像管电视系统(kinescope)的发明者;[477] 谢奥多修斯·杜布赞斯基(Theodosius Dobzhansky)在其推动现代综合进化论的研究中,成为进化生物学领域的核心人物;[478] 乔治·伽莫夫(George Gamow)则是宇宙大爆炸理论的主要倡导者之一。[479]
5.3.1 太空探索 | Space exploration
Roscosmos is Russia’s national space agency. The country’s achievements in the field of space technology and space exploration can be traced back to Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, the father of theoretical astronautics, whose works had inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers, such as Sergey Korolyov, Valentin Glushko, and many others who contributed to the success of the Soviet space programme in the early stages of the Space Race and beyond.[480]: 6–7, 333
【参考译文】俄罗斯国家航天局(Roscosmos)是俄罗斯的国家航天机构。该国在航天技术和空间探索领域的成就,可以追溯到“理论航天学之父”康斯坦丁·齐奥尔科夫斯基(Konstantin Tsiolkovsky)。他的理论著作启发了苏联火箭工程界的许多领军人物,如谢尔盖·科罗廖夫(Sergey Korolyov)、瓦伦丁·格鲁什科(Valentin Glushko)等人,这些科学家为苏联在太空竞赛初期乃至更长时间内的航天成功奠定了基础。[480]: 6–7, 333
In 1957, the first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, was launched. In 1961, the first human trip into space was successfully made by Yuri Gagarin. Many other Soviet and Russian space exploration records ensued. In 1963, Valentina Tereshkova became the first and youngest woman in space, having flown a solo mission on Vostok 6.[481] In 1965, Alexei Leonov became the first human to conduct a spacewalk, exiting the space capsule during Voskhod 2.[482]
【参考译文】1957年,世界上第一颗人造地球卫星“斯普特尼克1号”(Sputnik 1)由苏联成功发射。1961年,尤里·加加林(Yuri Gagarin)成为首位进入太空的人类,并圆满完成飞行任务。此后,苏联和俄罗斯创下了一系列太空探索纪录。1963年,瓦莲京娜·捷列什科娃(Valentina Tereshkova)乘坐“东方6号”(Vostok 6)升空,成为历史上第一位、也是最年轻的进入太空的女性。[481] 1965年,阿列克谢·列昂诺夫(Alexei Leonov)在“上升2号”(Voskhod 2)任务中首次实现了人类太空行走,走出太空舱。[482]
In 1957, Laika, a Soviet space dog, became the first animal to orbit the Earth, aboard Sputnik 2.[483] In 1966, Luna 9 became the first spacecraft to achieve a survivable landing on a celestial body, the Moon.[484] In 1968, Zond 5 brought the first Earthlings (two tortoises and other life forms) to circumnavigate the Moon.[485] In 1970, Venera 7 became the first spacecraft to land on another planet, Venus.[486] In 1971, Mars 3 became the first spacecraft to land on Mars.[487]: 34–60 During the same period, Lunokhod 1 became the first space exploration rover,[488] while Salyut 1 became the world’s first space station.[489]
【参考译文】1957年,苏联太空犬“莱卡”(Laika)搭乘“斯普特尼克2号”升空,成为第一个进入太空并绕地球轨道飞行的动物。[483] 1966年,“月球9号”(Luna 9)探测器成功实现人类首次在天体(月球)上的软着陆。[484] 1968年,“探测器5号”(Zond 5)搭载两只乌龟和其他生物完成了首次环绕月球飞行,成为第一批离开近地轨道的地球生命形式。[485] 1970年,“金星7号”(Venera 7)探测器首次成功登陆另一颗行星——金星。[486] 1971年,“火星3号”(Mars 3)成为首个成功着陆火星的航天器。[487]: 34–60 同一时期,“月球车1号”(Lunokhod 1)成为人类首个用于外星探索的遥控巡视器,而“礼炮1号”(Salyut 1)则成为世界上第一个空间站。[488][489]
As of 2023, Russia has 181 active satellites in space, which is the third-highest in the world.[490] Between the final flight of the Space Shuttle programme in 2011 and the 2020 SpaceX‘s first crewed mission, Soyuz rockets were the only launch vehicles capable of transporting astronauts to the ISS.[491] Luna 25 launched in August 2023, was the first of the Luna-Glob Moon exploration programme.[492]
【参考译文】截至2023年,俄罗斯共有181颗活跃卫星在轨运行,数量位居世界第三。[490] 从2011年美国航天飞机计划最后一次飞行结束,到2020年SpaceX执行首次载人任务期间,“联盟号”(Soyuz)火箭曾是唯一可用于将宇航员送往国际空间站(ISS)的运载工具。[491]2023年8月发射的“月球-25号”(Luna 25)标志着“月球-环球”(Luna-Glob)探月计划的正式启动。[492]
5.4 旅游业 | Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Russia【主条目:俄罗斯的旅游业】
Most foreign tourists come from China.[493] Major tourist routes in Russia include a journey around the Golden Ring of Russia, a theme route of ancient Russian cities; cruises on large rivers such as the Volga; hikes on mountain ranges such as the Caucasus Mountains,[494] and journeys on the famous Trans-Siberian Railway.[495] Russia’s most visited and popular landmarks include Red Square, the Peterhof Palace, the Kazan Kremlin, the Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius and Lake Baikal.[496]
【参考译文】俄罗斯的主要外国游客来源地是中国。[493] 俄罗斯的主要旅游线路包括:围绕“俄罗斯金环”展开的旅程,这是一条串联众多古代俄罗斯城市的主题旅游路线;在伏加等大河上的游轮之旅;在高加索山脉等山地进行徒步旅行;以及乘坐著名的西伯利亚大铁路列车进行的长途旅行。[495] 俄罗斯最受欢迎、参观人数最多的地标包括红场、彼得宫(夏宫)、喀山克里姆林宫、圣谢尔盖三一修道院(特罗伊察修道院)和贝加尔湖。[496]
Moscow, the nation’s cosmopolitan capital and historic core, is a bustling modern megacity; it retains classical and Soviet-era architecture while boasting high art, world class ballet, and modern skyscrapers.[497] Saint Petersburg, the imperial capital, is famous for its classical architecture, cathedrals, museums and theatres, white nights, crisscrossing rivers and numerous canals.[498] Russia is famed worldwide for its rich museums, such as the State Russian, the State Hermitage, and the Tretyakov Gallery, and for theatres such as the Bolshoi and the Mariinsky. The Moscow Kremlin and the Saint Basil’s Cathedral are among the cultural landmarks of Russia.[499]
【参考译文】莫斯科是俄罗斯多元文化的首都和历史核心,是一座繁华的现代化大都市。它保留了古典风格和苏联时期的建筑,同时拥有高水平的艺术、世界一流的芭蕾舞团以及现代化的摩天大楼。[497] 圣彼得堡曾是沙皇俄国的首都,以古典建筑、教堂、博物馆和剧院闻名,还有迷人的白夜景色、纵横交错的河流与众多运河系统。[498] 俄罗斯以其丰富的博物馆而闻名全球,如俄罗斯国家博物馆、艾尔米塔什博物馆和特列季亚科夫画廊;其剧院也享有盛誉,如莫斯科的波修瓦剧院(大剧院)和圣彼得堡的马林斯基剧院。莫斯科克里姆林宫和圣瓦西里大教堂等建筑,被视为俄罗斯的文化象征之一。[499]
6. 人口统计 | Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Russia, Russians, List of cities and towns in Russia, and List of cities and towns in Russia by population
【主条目:俄罗斯人口统计、俄罗斯人、俄罗斯城镇列表以及按人口划分的俄罗斯城镇列表】
主条目:俄罗斯城市和城镇人口列表
Russia had an estimated population of 146.0 million in 2025 (143.6 million excluding Crimea and Sevastopol),[14] down from 147.2 million in the 2021 census.[500] It is the most populous country in Europe and ninth-most populous country in the world. With a population density of 8.5 inhabitants per square kilometre (22 inhabitants/sq mi),[501] Russia is one of the world’s most sparsely populated countries,[6] with the vast majority of its people concentrated within its western part.[502] The country is highly urbanised, with two-thirds of the population living in urban areas. As of 2024, the total fertility rate across Russia is estimated to be 1.41 children born per woman,[503] which is below the replacement rate of 2.1 and among the lowest in the world.[504] Subsequently, it has one of the oldest populations in the world, with a median age of 41.9 years.[6]
【参考译文】根据2025年的估计,俄罗斯人口约为1.46亿(若不含克里米亚和塞瓦斯托波尔,则为1.436亿),[14] 较2021年人口普查时的1.472亿有所下降。[500]俄罗斯是欧洲人口最多的国家,也是世界第九个人口最多的国家。其人口密度为每平方公里8.5人(每平方英里约22人),[501] 是世界上人口最稀少的国家之一。[6] 由于地理与气候因素,大部分人口集中在国土的西部地区。[502]俄罗斯的城市化程度很高,全国三分之二的人口居住在城市地区。截至2024年,俄罗斯的总生育率估计为每名女性生育1.41个孩子,[503] 远低于维持人口稳定的更替水平2.1,并属于全球生育率最低的国家之一。[504]因此,俄罗斯也是世界上人口老龄化最严重的国家之一,中位年龄为41.9岁。[6]
Russia’s population peaked at over 148 million in 1993, having subsequently declined due to its death rate exceeding its birth rate, which some analysts have called a demographic crisis.[505] In 2009, it recorded annual population growth for the first time in fifteen years, and subsequently experienced annual population growth due to declining death rates, increased birth rates, and increased immigration.[506] However, these population gains have been reversed since 2020, as excessive deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in the largest peacetime decline in its history.[507] Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the demographic crisis has deepened,[508] owing to high military fatalities[509] and renewed emigration.[510] Recent studies have shown that between 15-45% of Russian emigrants have returned to Russia, though these numbers are not conclusive.[511]
【参考译文】俄罗斯人口在1993年达到峰值,超过1.48亿人,但此后由于死亡率超过出生率,人口持续下降,一些分析人士将这一现象称为“人口危机”。[505] 2009年,俄罗斯记录了自15年以来的首次年度人口增长,并在此后几年因死亡率下降、出生率上升以及移民增加而保持人口增长趋势。[506] 然而,自2020年以来,这一人口增长趋势被逆转。由于新冠疫情导致的大量死亡,俄罗斯经历了其历史上和平时期最大规模的人口下降。[507] 随着2022年俄罗斯对乌克兰的入侵,人口危机进一步加剧,原因包括军事伤亡人数高企[509] 和新一轮移民潮(逃避征兵或政治压力)的影响。[510] 近期研究表明,约有15%至45%的俄罗斯移民已返回国内,不过这些数据尚无定论。[511]
Russia is a multinational state with many subnational entities associated with different minorities.[512] There are over 193 ethnic groups nationwide. In the 2010 census, roughly 81% of the population were ethnic Russians, and the remaining 19% of the population were ethnic minorities.[513] Over four-fifths of Russia’s population was of European descent—of whom the vast majority were Slavs,[512][514] with a substantial minority of Finno-Ugric and Germanic peoples.[515][516] Russia has the third-largest immigrant population in the world, with over 12 million immigrants residing in the country as of 2019.[517] The vast majority of the Immigrants hail from post-Soviet states, with about half of them being from Ukraine and Kazakhstan as of 2020.[518]
【参考译文】俄罗斯是一个多民族国家,国内设有多个与不同少数民族相关的联邦主体。[512] 全国共有超过193个民族。根据2010年的人口普查数据,约有81%的人口为俄罗斯族,其余19%为各类少数民族。[513]俄罗斯人口中,超过五分之四具有欧洲血统,其中绝大多数为斯拉夫人,[512][514] 此外还包括相当数量的芬兰-乌戈尔语族和日耳曼民族人群。[515][516]俄罗斯是世界上移民人口第三多的国家,截至2019年,境内居住的移民人数超过1,200万。[517] 这些移民绝大多数来自前苏联国家,截至2020年,其中约有一半来自乌克兰和哈萨克斯坦。[518]

6.1 语言 | Language
Main articles: Russian language and Languages of Russia【主条目:“俄语”和“俄罗斯的语言”】
主条目:俄语
Russian is the official and the predominantly spoken language in Russia.[3] It is the most spoken native language in Europe, the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, as well as the world’s most widely spoken Slavic language.[521] Russian is one of two official languages aboard the International Space Station,[522] as well as one of the six official languages of the United Nations.[521]
【参考译文】俄语是俄罗斯的官方语言,也是全国最广泛使用的语言。[3] 它是欧洲使用人数最多的母语,是欧亚大陆地理分布最广的语言,同时也是世界上使用最广泛的斯拉夫语。[521] 俄语不仅是联合国六种官方语言之一,[521] 也是国际空间站上的两种官方语言之一。[522]
Russia is a multilingual nation: approximately 100–150 minority languages are spoken across the country.[523][524] According to the Russian Census of 2010, 137.5 million across the country spoke Russian, 4.3 million spoke Tatar, and 1.1 million spoke Ukrainian.[525] The constitution gives the country’s individual republics the right to establish their own state languages in addition to Russian, as well as guarantee its citizens the right to preserve their native language and to create conditions for its study and development.[526] However, various experts have claimed Russia’s linguistic diversity is rapidly declining due to many languages becoming endangered.[527][528]
【参考译文】俄罗斯是一个多语种国家:全国范围内大约有100到150种少数民族语言被使用。[523][524] 根据2010年俄罗斯人口普查数据显示,全国有1.375亿人使用俄语,430万人讲鞑靼语,110万人讲乌克兰语。[525]根据宪法,俄罗斯各共和国拥有权利在俄语之外设立自己的官方语言,并保障公民保留母语、学习和发展母语的权利。[526] 然而,许多语言学家指出,由于大量语言濒临灭绝,俄罗斯的语言多样性正在迅速减少。[527][528]
Russia is a multilingual nation: approximately 100–150 minority languages are spoken across the country.[523][524] According to the Russian Census of 2010, 137.5 million across the country spoke Russian, 4.3 million spoke Tatar, and 1.1 million spoke Ukrainian.[525] The constitution gives the country’s individual republics the right to establish their own state languages in addition to Russian, as well as guarantee its citizens the right to preserve their native language and to create conditions for its study and development.[526] However, various experts have claimed Russia’s linguistic diversity is rapidly declining due to many languages becoming endangered.[527][528]
【参考译文】俄罗斯是一个多语言国家,全国大约有100至150种少数民族语言被使用。[523][524] 根据2010年俄罗斯人口普查数据,全国有1.375亿人使用俄语,430万人讲鞑靼语,110万人讲乌克兰语。[525]俄罗斯宪法赋予各共和国在俄语之外设立自己官方语言的权利,同时也保障公民保留和传承母语的权利,并承诺为母语的学习和发展创造条件。[526]然而,多位专家指出,由于许多语言正面临消亡的危险,俄罗斯的语言多样性正在迅速减少。[527][528]
6.2 宗教 | Religion
Main article: Religion in Russia【主条目:俄罗斯的宗教】
Russia is constitutionally a secular state that officially enshrines freedom of religion.[529][530] The largest religion is Eastern Orthodox Christianity, chiefly represented by the Russian Orthodox Church,[529][531] which is legally recognised for its “special role” in the country’s “history and the formation and development of its spirituality and culture.”[530] Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Buddhism are recognised by Russian law as the “traditional” religions of the country constituting its “historical heritage”.[532][533]
【参考译文】俄罗斯在宪法上是一个世俗国家,并明确规定了宗教信仰自由。[529][530] 信奉人数最多的宗教是东正教基督教,主要由俄罗斯正教会代表。[529][531] 俄罗斯法律承认俄罗斯正教会在该国“历史以及精神和文化形成与发展”中具有“特殊地位”。[530]基督教、伊斯兰教、犹太教和佛教被俄罗斯法律认定为本国的“传统宗教”,构成俄罗斯的“历史文化遗产”。[532][533]
Islam is the second-largest religion in Russia and is traditional among the majority of peoples in the North Caucasus and some Turkic peoples in the Volga-Ural region.[529][531] Large populations of Buddhists are found in Kalmykia, Buryatia, Zabaykalsky Krai, and they are the vast majority of the population in Tuva.[531] A negligible population practices other religions—such as Rodnovery (Slavic Neopaganism),[534] Assianism (Scythian Neopaganism),[535] other ethnic Paganisms, and inter-Pagan movements such as Ringing Cedars’ Anastasianism,[536] various movements of Hinduism,[537] Siberian shamanism[538] and Tengrism, various Neo-Theosophical movements such as Roerichism—among other faiths.[539][540] Some religious minorities have faced oppression and some have been banned in the country:[541] notably, in 2017 the Jehovah’s Witnesses were outlawed in Russia, facing persecution ever since, after having been declared an “extremist” and “nontraditional” faith.[542]
【参考译文】伊斯兰教是俄罗斯第二大宗教,也是北高加索地区大多数民族和伏尔加-乌拉尔地区一些突厥民族的传统宗教。[529][531]卡尔梅克、布里亚特、外贝加尔边疆区有大量佛教徒,他们也是图瓦人口的绝大多数。[531]极少数人口信奉其他宗教,例如罗德诺维里教(斯拉夫新异教)[534]、亚细亚新异教(斯基泰新异教)[535]、其他民族的异教,以及跨异教运动,如鸣响雪松的阿纳斯塔西亚教[536]、各种印度教运动[537]、西伯利亚萨满教[538]和腾格里教,以及各种新神智学运动,如列里奇教——以及其他信仰。[539][540]一些宗教少数群体在该国面临压迫,有的甚至被禁止:[541] 值得注意的是,2017 年,耶和华见证人在俄罗斯被取缔,被宣布为“极端主义”和“非传统”信仰后,一直面临迫害。[542]
In 2012, the research organisation Sreda, in cooperation with the Ministry of Justice, published the Arena Atlas, an adjunct to the 2010 census, enumerating in detail the religious populations and nationalities of Russia, based on a large-sample country-wide survey. The results showed that 47.3% of Russians declared themselves Christians—including 41% Russian Orthodox, 1.5% simply Orthodox or members of non-Russian Orthodox churches, 4.1% unaffiliated Christians, and less than 1% Old Believers, Catholics or Protestants—25% were believers without affiliation to any specific religion, 13% were atheists, 6.5% were Muslims,[The Sreda Arena Atlas 2012 did not count the populations of two federal subjects of Russia where the majority of the population is Muslim, namely Chechnya and Ingushetia, which together had a population of nearly 2 million, thus the proportion of Muslims was possibly slightly underestimated.[531] 1.2% were followers of “traditional religions honouring gods and ancestors” (Rodnovery, other Paganisms, Siberian shamanism and Tengrism), 0.5% were Buddhists, 0.1% were religious Jews and 0.1% were Hindus.[531]
【参考译文】2012年,研究机构“Sreda”在与俄罗斯司法部合作下发布了《Arena宗教地图集》(Arena Atlas),作为对2010年人口普查的补充。该地图基于全国范围内的大样本调查,详细列出了俄罗斯的宗教人口和民族构成。结果显示:
0.1% 为印度教徒。[531]
47.3% 的俄罗斯人自称是基督徒,其中包括:
- 41% 为俄罗斯正教徒(Russian Orthodox),
- 1.5% 为其他东正教信徒或非俄罗斯东正教教会成员,
- 4.1% 为无特定教派的基督徒(unaffiliated Christians),
- 不到 1% 为旧礼仪派(Old Believers)、天主教徒(Catholics)或新教徒(Protestants);
25% 为没有明确宗教归属的信仰者;
13% 为无神论者;
6.5% 为穆斯林;[2012 年 Sreda Arena 地图集没有统计俄罗斯两个以穆斯林为主的联邦主体,即车臣和印古什的人口,这两个联邦主体的人口总数接近 200 万,因此穆斯林的比例可能略有低估。[531]]
1.2% 为信奉“尊崇神灵与祖先的传统宗教”的人群(包括罗多信仰 Rodnovery、其他异教信仰、西伯利亚萨满教和腾格里教等);
0.5% 为佛教徒;
0.1% 为虔诚的犹太教徒;
In 2024, the Public Opinion Foundation (FOM) found that 61.8% of Russians identify as Orthodox Christians, 2.6% as other Christians, 8% as Muslims, 21.2% as not religious, 1.4% follow other religions and 3.5% are unsure about their belief.[543][544] According to the survey, Orthodoxy is more widespread among women, people aged 60 and older, and people living in the Central and Southern Federal Districts, while Islam is the dominant religion in the North Caucasian Federal District.
【参考译文】2024年,民意基金会(FOM)的调查发现,61.8%的俄罗斯人认为自己是东正教徒,2.6%认为自己是其他基督教徒,8%认为自己是穆斯林,21.2%认为自己无宗教信仰,1.4%认为自己信奉其他宗教,3.5%认为自己不确定自己的信仰。[543][544] 调查显示,东正教在女性、60岁及以上人群以及居住在中部和南部联邦区的人群中更为普遍,而伊斯兰教是北高加索联邦区的主要宗教。
6.3 教育 | Education
Main article: Education in Russia【主条目:俄罗斯的教育】
Russia has an adult literacy rate of 100%,[546] and has compulsory education for a duration of 11 years, exclusively for children aged 7 to 17–18.[547] It grants free education to its citizens by constitution.[548] The Ministry of Education of Russia is responsible for primary and secondary education, as well as vocational education, while the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia is responsible for science and higher education.[547] Regional authorities regulate education within their jurisdictions within the prevailing framework of federal laws. Russia is among the world’s most educated countries, and has the sixth-highest proportion of tertiary-level graduates in terms of percentage of population, at 62.1%.[549]
【参考译文】俄罗斯的成人识字率达到100%,[546] 并实行长达11年的义务教育制,面向年龄在7至17-18岁之间的儿童。[547] 根据宪法规定,俄罗斯公民享有免费教育的权利。[548] 俄罗斯教育和科学部负责管理初等教育、中等教育、职业教育以及高等教育和科研事务。各地区政府则在联邦法律框架下,负责本辖区内的教育管理。俄罗斯是全球受教育程度最高的国家之一,拥有世界第六高的高等教育毕业人口比例,达到总人口的62.1%。[549]
Russia’s pre-school education system is highly developed and optional,[550] some four-fifths of children aged 3 to 6 attend day nurseries or kindergartens. Primary school is compulsory for eleven years, starting from age 6 to 7, and leads to a basic general education certificate.[547] An additional two or three years of schooling are required for the secondary-level certificate, and some seven-eighths of Russians continue their education past this level.[551]
【参考译文】俄罗斯的学前教育体系高度发达且为非强制性**,约有五分之四年龄在3至6岁的儿童会进入托儿所或幼儿园接受教育。[550] 初等教育为11年制,通常从6至7岁开始,完成之后可获得基础普通教育证书。[547] 继续完成额外两到三年的学习后,学生可以获得中等教育毕业证书,约有七分之八(即绝大多数)的俄罗斯人会继续接受更高层次的教育。[551]
Admission to an institute of higher education is selective and highly competitive:[548][better source needed] first-degree courses usually take five years.[551] The oldest and largest universities in Russia are Moscow State University and Saint Petersburg State University.[552] There are ten highly prestigious[citation needed] federal universities across the country.
【参考译文】进入高等教育机构学习需要通过选拔考试,竞争十分激烈:[548][需要更权威来源] 本科课程通常为期五年。[551] 俄罗斯历史最悠久、规模最大的两所大学分别是莫斯科国立大学和圣彼得堡国立大学。[552] 全国共有十所备受推崇的联邦大学(注:此处需补充引用)。
6.3+1 卫生健康 | Health
Main article: Healthcare in Russia【主条目:俄罗斯的卫生健康】
Russia, by constitution, guarantees free, universal health care for all Russian citizens, through a compulsory state health insurance programme.[553] The Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation oversees the Russian public healthcare system, and the sector employs more than two million people. Federal regions also have their own departments of health that oversee local administration. A separate private health insurance plan is needed to access private healthcare in Russia.[554]
【参考译文】根据宪法,俄罗斯通过一项强制性的国家健康保险计划,保障所有俄罗斯公民享有免费、全民覆盖的医疗服务。[553] 俄罗斯联邦卫生部负责监管全国的公共医疗体系,该行业雇佣了超过两百万人。各联邦地区也设有自己的卫生部门,负责地方层面的管理。如需使用私人医疗服务,则需要另外购买私人健康保险计划。[554]
Russia spent 7.39% of its GDP on healthcare in 2021.[556] Its healthcare expenditure is notably lower than other developed nations.[557] Russia has one of the world’s most female-biased sex ratios, with 0.859 males to every female,[6] due to its high male mortality rate.[558] As of 2022, the overall life expectancy in Russia at birth is 73 years (68 years for males and 78 years for females),[559][560][561] and it has a very low infant mortality rate (4 per 1,000 live births).[562]
【参考译文】2021年,俄罗斯将其国内生产总值(GDP)的**7.39%**用于医疗保健支出。[556] 然而,与其他发达国家相比,俄罗斯的医疗支出明显偏低。[557] 由于男性死亡率较高,俄罗斯是世界上性别比例最偏向女性的国家之一,每名男性对应仅有0.859名女性。[6][558] 截至2022年,俄罗斯的人均预期寿命为73岁(男性为68岁,女性为78岁)。[559][560][561] 婴儿死亡率也非常低,仅为每千名活产婴儿中有4例死亡。[562]
The principal cause of death in Russia are cardiovascular diseases.[563] Obesity is a prevalent health issue in Russia; most adults are overweight or obese.[564] However, Russia’s historically high alcohol consumption rate is the biggest health issue in the country,[565] as it remains one of the world’s highest, despite a stark decrease in the last decade.[566] Smoking is another health issue in the country.[567] The country’s high suicide rate, although on the decline,[568] remains a significant social issue.[569]
【参考译文】俄罗斯居民的主要死亡原因是心血管疾病。[563] 肥胖问题是俄罗斯普遍存在的健康问题,大多数成年人超重或肥胖。[564] 然而,历史上居高不下的酒精消费率仍是该国最严重的健康挑战之一,尽管过去十年已显著下降,但俄罗斯仍属于全球酒精消费最高的国家之一。[565][566] 吸烟也是俄罗斯面临的重要公共卫生问题之一。[567] 此外,虽然自杀率呈下降趋势,[568] 但其仍然居高不下,是俄罗斯一个重要的社会问题。[569]
7. 文化 | Culture
Main article: Russian culture / 主条目:俄罗斯文化
Russian writers and philosophers have played an important role in the development of European literature[570][571] and thought.[572] The Russians have also influenced classical music,[573][574] ballet,[575][576] theatre,[577] mathematics,[464] sport,[578] painting,[579][580] and cinema.[581] The nation has also made pioneering contributions to science and technology and space exploration.[582][583]
【参考译文】俄罗斯的作家和哲学家在欧洲文学[570][571]和思想发展史上发挥了重要作用。[572] 他们在古典音乐、[573][574] 芭蕾舞、[575][576] 戏剧、[577] 数学、[464] 体育、[578] 绘画、[579][580] 和电影[581] 等领域也产生了深远影响。俄罗斯在科学、技术与太空探索方面也作出了开创性的贡献。[582][583]
Russia is home to 32 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, 21 of which are cultural, while 31 more sites lie on the tentative list.[584] The large global Russian diaspora has also played a major role in spreading Russian culture throughout the world. Russia’s national symbol, the double-headed eagle, dates back to the Tsardom period, and is featured in its coat of arms and heraldry.[59] The Russian Bear and Mother Russia are often used as national personifications of the country.[585][586] Matryoshka dolls are considered a cultural icon of Russia.[587]
【参考译文】俄罗斯拥有32处联合国教科文组织世界遗产,其中21处为文化遗产,另有31处被列入预备名单。[584] 分布在全球范围内的庞大俄罗斯侨民群体也在世界各地传播了俄罗斯文化。俄罗斯的国家象征——双头鹰,起源于沙皇时代,如今出现在国徽和纹章中。[59] “俄罗斯熊”和“祖国母亲”(Mother Russia)常被用作代表俄罗斯的国家拟人形象。[585][586] 套娃(又称“玛特廖什卡娃娃”)则被视为俄罗斯文化的象征之一。[587]
7.1 节假日 | Holidays
Main article: Public holidays in Russia【主条目:俄罗斯公共节假日】
Russia has eight—public, patriotic, and religious—official holidays.[588] The year starts with New Year’s Day on 1 January, soon followed by Russian Orthodox Christmas on 7 January; the two are the country’s most popular holidays.[589] Defender of the Fatherland Day, dedicated to men, is celebrated on 23 February.[590] International Women’s Day on 8 March, gained momentum in Russia during the Soviet era. The annual celebration of women has become so popular, especially among Russian men, that the flower vendors of Moscow often see profits “fiften times” more compared to other holidays.[591] Spring and Labour Day, originally a Soviet era holiday dedicated to workers, is celebrated on 1 May.[592]
【参考译文】俄罗斯共有八项官方节日,包括公众节日、爱国节日和宗教节日。[588] 每年以1月1日新年元旦开始,随后不久是1月7日的俄罗斯正教圣诞节,这两个节日是俄罗斯最受欢迎的节日。[589]祖国保卫者日(Defender of the Fatherland Day)是纪念男性的节日,于2月23日庆祝。[590] 国际妇女节(International Women’s Day)在苏联时期开始在俄罗斯流行起来,日期为3月8日。这一节日在俄罗斯尤其受到重视,尤其是俄罗斯男性会在这天向女性赠送礼物和鲜花表达敬意,因此莫斯科的花商常常在这天获得比其他节日“高出十五倍”的利润。[591] 春天与劳动节(Spring and Labour Day)最初是苏联时期的工人节日,现仍在5月1日庆祝。[592]
Victory Day, which honours Soviet victory over Nazi Germany and the End of World War II in Europe, is celebrated on 9 May as an annual large parade in Moscow’s Red Square[593] and marks the famous Immortal Regiment civil event.[594] Other patriotic holidays include Russia Day on 12 June, celebrated to commemorate Russia’s declaration of sovereignty from the collapsing Soviet Union,[595] and Unity Day on 4 November, commemorating the 1612 uprising which marked the end of the Polish occupation of Moscow.[596]
【参考译文】胜利日(Victory Day)是为了纪念苏联战胜纳粹德国以及欧洲二战结束,于每年5月9日举行庆祝活动。这一天,莫斯科红场上会举行盛大的阅兵仪式,[593] 同时还举办著名的“不朽军团”(Immortal Regiment)民间纪念活动,人们手持在战争中牺牲的亲人照片以示缅怀。[594]
其他爱国节日包括:
- 俄罗斯日(Russia Day),于6月12日庆祝,是为了纪念俄罗斯从解体中的苏联宣布主权独立。[595]
- 民族团结日(Unity Day),于11月4日庆祝,纪念1612年人民起义结束波兰对莫斯科的占领。[596]
There are many popular non-public holidays. Old New Year is celebrated on 14 January.[597] Maslenitsa is an ancient and popular East Slavic folk holiday.[598] Cosmonautics Day on 12 April, in tribute to the first human trip into space.[599] Two major Christian holidays are Easter and Trinity Sunday.[600]
【参考译文】此外,还有许多受欢迎的非官方节日:
- 旧新年(Old New Year)在1月14日庆祝。[597]
- 送冬节(Maslenitsa)是一个古老而广受欢迎的东斯拉夫民间节日。[598]
- 宇航节(Cosmonautics Day)在4月12日庆祝,以纪念人类首次进入太空。[599]
两个重要的基督教节日是:
圣三主日(Trinity Sunday)[600]
复活节(Easter)
7.2 艺术与建筑 | Art and architecture
Main articles: Russian artists, Architecture of Russia, and List of Russian architects
【主条目:俄罗斯艺术家、俄罗斯建筑、俄罗斯建筑师列表】
Early Russian painting is represented in icons and vibrant frescos. In the early 15th century, the master icon painter Andrei Rublev created some of Russia’s most treasured religious art.[579] The Russian Academy of Arts, which was established in 1757, to train Russian artists, brought Western techniques of secular painting to Russia.[59] In the 18th century, academicians Ivan Argunov, Dmitry Levitzky, Vladimir Borovikovsky became influential.[601] The early 19th century saw many prominent paintings by Karl Briullov and Alexander Ivanov, both of whom were known for Romantic historical canvases.[602][603] Ivan Aivazovsky, another Romantic painter, is considered one of the greatest masters of marine art.[604]
【参考译文】早期俄罗斯绘画主要体现在宗教圣像画和色彩鲜艳的壁画中。15世纪初,著名圣像画家安德烈·鲁布列夫(Andrei Rublev)创作了俄罗斯最珍贵的一些宗教艺术作品。[579] 为培养本土艺术家而于1757年成立的俄罗斯艺术学院将西方的世俗绘画技法引入俄罗斯。[59] 18世纪,学院派画家伊万·阿尔古诺夫(Ivan Argunov)、德米特里·列维茨基(Dmitry Levitzky)和弗拉基米尔·博罗维科夫斯基(Vladimir Borovikovsky)等人在艺术界具有重要影响力。[601] 19世纪初期,卡尔·布留洛夫(Karl Briul洛夫)和亚历山大·伊万诺夫(Alexander Ivanov)创作了许多著名的油画作品,两人均以浪漫主义风格的历史题材画作闻名。[602][603] 同属浪漫主义画派的伊万·艾瓦佐夫斯基(Ivan Aivazovsky)则被认为是海洋题材艺术最伟大的大师之一。[604]
In the 1860s, a group of critical realists (Peredvizhniki), led by Ivan Kramskoy, Ilya Repin and Vasiliy Perov broke with the academy, and portrayed the many-sided aspects of social life in paintings.[605][606] The turn of the 20th century saw the rise of symbolism, represented by Mikhail Vrubel and Nicholas Roerich.[607][608] The Russian avant-garde flourished from approximately 1890 to 1930; globally influential artists from this era were El Lissitzky,[609] Kazimir Malevich, Natalia Goncharova, Wassily Kandinsky, and Marc Chagall.[610]
【参考译文】19世纪60年代,以伊万·克拉姆斯科伊(Ivan Kramskoy)、伊里亚·列宾(Ilya Repin)和瓦西里·佩罗夫(Vasiliy Perov)为首的一群批判现实主义画家(称为“巡回展览画派”或“Peredvizhniki”)脱离学院派,开始在绘画中表现社会生活的多面性。[605][606] 20世纪初,象征主义兴起,代表人物有米哈伊尔·弗鲁贝尔(Mikhail Vrubel)和尼古拉斯·洛里奇(Nicholas Roerich)。[607][608] 俄罗斯先锋艺术从约1890年到1930年间蓬勃发展,这一时期具有全球影响力的艺术家包括:埃尔·利西茨基(El Lissitzky)、卡济米尔·马列维奇(Kazimir Malevich)、娜塔莉亚·冈察洛娃(Natalia Goncharova)、瓦西里·康定斯基(Wassily Kandinsky)和马克·夏加尔(Marc Chagall)。[609][610]
The history of Architecture of Russia begins with early woodcraft buildings of ancient Slavs, and the church architecture of Kievan Rus’.[579][611] Following the Christianization of Kievan Rus’, for several centuries it was influenced predominantly by Byzantine architecture.[579][612] Following Mongol occupation, Kievan Rus’ cut its ties with the Byzantine Empire, and Russian architecture saw native innovations, such as the invention of the iconostasis.[579] Aristotle Fioravanti and other Italian architects brought Renaissance trends to the Grand Principality of Moscow, which influenced the reconstruction of the Moscow Kremlin.[579][613] The 16th century saw the development of the unique tent-like churches and the onion dome design, which is a distinctive feature of Russian architecture.[614] In the 17th century, the “fiery style” of ornamentation flourished in Moscow and Yaroslavl, gradually paving the way for the Naryshkin baroque of the 1680s.[615]
【参考译文】俄罗斯建筑的历史始于古代斯拉夫人的木结构建筑和基辅罗斯时期的教堂建筑。[579][611] 随着基辅罗斯的基督教化,其建筑风格在几个世纪内主要受到拜占庭建筑的强烈影响。[579][612] 蒙古人入侵后,基辅罗斯与拜占庭帝国断绝联系,俄罗斯建筑逐渐发展出本土特色,例如圣像屏(iconostasis)的发明。[579] 意大利建筑师阿里斯托特尔·菲奥拉万蒂(Aristotele Fioravanti)等人将文艺复兴风格引入莫斯科大公国,并影响了莫斯科克里姆林宫的重建工作。[579][613] 16世纪,俄罗斯出现了独特的帐篷式教堂和洋葱形圆顶设计,成为俄罗斯建筑的标志性特征。[614] 17世纪,莫斯科和雅罗斯拉夫尔地区兴起了装饰华丽的“火焰风格”(fiery style),为1680年代兴起的纳雷什金巴洛克风格(Naryshkin Baroque)奠定了基础。[615]
After the reforms of Peter the Great, Russia’s architecture became influenced by Western European styles.[579] The 18th-century taste for Rococo architecture led to the works of Bartolomeo Rastrelli and his followers. The most influential Russian architects of the eighteenth century, Vasily Bazhenov, Matvey Kazakov, and Ivan Starov, created lasting monuments in Moscow and Saint Petersburg and established a base for the more Russian forms that followed.[579] During the reign of Catherine the Great, Saint Petersburg was transformed into an outdoor museum of Neoclassical architecture.[616] Under Alexander I, Empire style became the de facto architectural style.[617] The second half of the 19th century was dominated by the Neo-Byzantine and Russian Revival style.[579][618] In the early 20th century, Russian neoclassical revival became a trend.[619] Prevalent styles of the late 20th century were Art Nouveau,[620] Constructivism,[621] and Socialist Classicism.[622]
【参考译文】彼得大帝改革之后,俄罗斯建筑深受西欧风格影响。[579] 18世纪流行的洛可可风格催生了建筑师巴托洛梅奥·拉斯特雷利(Bartolomeo Rastrelli)及其追随者的作品。18世纪最具影响力的俄罗斯建筑师包括瓦西里·巴热诺夫(Vasily Bazhenov)、马特维·卡扎科夫(Matvey Kazakov)和伊万·斯塔罗夫(Ivan Starov),他们在莫斯科和圣彼得堡留下了许多不朽之作,并为后来更具俄罗斯特色的建筑形式打下了基础。[579] 叶卡捷琳娜二世统治时期,圣彼得堡被打造成了一个露天的新古典主义建筑博物馆。[616] 亚历山大一世时期,帝国风格(Empire style)成为主流建筑风格。[617] 19世纪下半叶,新拜占庭风格和俄罗斯复兴风格占据主导地位。[579][618] 到了20世纪初,俄罗斯新古典主义复兴成为一种潮流。[619] 20世纪下半叶的主要建筑风格包括:新艺术运动(Art Nouveau)、[620] 构成主义(Constructivism)[621] 和社会主义古典主义(Socialist Classicism)。[622]
7.3 音乐 | Music
Main article: Music of Russia【主条目:俄罗斯音乐】
Until the 18th century, music in Russia consisted mainly of church music and folk songs and dances.[573] In the 19th century, it was defined by the tension between classical composer Mikhail Glinka along with other members of The Mighty Handful, who were later succeeded by the Belyayev circle,[623] and the Russian Musical Society led by composers Anton and Nikolay Rubinstein.[624] The later tradition of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, one of the greatest composers of the Romantic era, was continued into the 20th century by Sergei Rachmaninoff. World-renowned composers of the 20th century include Alexander Scriabin, Alexander Glazunov,[573] Igor Stravinsky, Sergei Prokofiev and Dmitri Shostakovich, and later Edison Denisov, Sofia Gubaidulina,[625] Georgy Sviridov,[626] and Alfred Schnittke.[625]
【参考译文】直到18世纪,俄罗斯的音乐主要由宗教音乐和民间歌曲与舞蹈组成。[573] 到了19世纪,俄罗斯音乐的发展呈现出两种主要趋势之间的张力:一方面是以古典主义作曲家米哈伊尔·格林卡(Mikhail Glinka)为首,并包括“强力集团”(The Mighty Handful)在内的民族主义音乐流派;另一方面是由作曲家安东尼·鲁宾斯坦(Anton Rubinstein)和尼古拉·鲁宾斯坦(Nikolai Rubinstein)领导的俄罗斯音乐协会(Russian Musical Society)所代表的西欧风格传统。[624] 强力集团之后被贝利亚耶夫圈(Belyayev circle)继承和发展。浪漫主义时期最伟大的作曲家之一——彼得·伊里奇·柴可夫斯基(Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky)延续了这一传统,并在20世纪由谢尔盖·拉赫玛尼诺夫(Sergei Rachmaninoff)继续发扬光大。20世纪涌现出一批世界著名的俄罗斯作曲家,包括:亚历山大·斯克里亚宾(Alexander Scriabin)、亚历山大·格拉祖诺夫(Alexander Glazunov)、[573] 伊戈尔·斯特拉文斯基(Igor Stravinsky)、谢尔盖·普罗科菲耶夫(Sergei Prokofiev)、德米特里·肖斯塔科维奇(Dmitri Shostakovich),以及后期的埃德松·杰尼索夫(Edison Denisov)、索菲娅·古拜杜丽娜(Sofia Gubaidulina)、[625] 格奥尔基·斯维里多夫(Georgy Sviridov)[626] 和阿尔弗雷德·施尼特凯(Alfred Schnittke)。[625]
During the Soviet era, popular music also produced a number of renowned figures, such as the two balladeers—Vladimir Vysotsky and Bulat Okudzhava,[625] and performers such as Alla Pugacheva.[627] Jazz, even with sanctions from Soviet authorities, flourished and evolved into one of the country’s most popular musical forms.[625] By the 1980s, rock music became popular across Russia, and produced bands such as Aria, Aquarium,[628] DDT,[629] and Kino;[630] the latter’s leader Viktor Tsoi, was in particular, a gigantic figure.[631] Pop music has continued to flourish in Russia since the 1960s, with globally famous acts such as t.A.T.u.[632]
【参考译文】苏联时期,流行音乐也诞生了许多杰出人物,例如两位著名的叙事歌曲演唱者——弗拉基米尔·维索茨基(Vladimir Vysotsky)和布拉特·奥库德扎瓦(Bulat Okudzhava),以及歌手阿拉·普加乔娃(Alla Pugacheva)。[627] 尽管受到苏联当局一定程度的限制,爵士乐仍然蓬勃发展,并成为俄罗斯最受欢迎的音乐形式之一。[625] 到了20世纪80年代,摇滚音乐在俄罗斯广泛流行,涌现出如Aria、Aquarium、DDT 和 Kino 等乐队。其中,Kino 乐队的主唱维克多·崔(Viktor Tsoi)尤其具有巨大影响力。[631] 自20世纪60年代以来,流行音乐在俄罗斯持续繁荣发展,出现了像t.A.T.u. 这样享誉全球的流行组合。[632]
7.4 文学和哲学 | Literature and philosophy
Main articles: Russian literature and Russian philosophy【主条目:俄罗斯文学和俄罗斯哲学】
主条目:俄罗斯文学
Russian literature is among the world’s most influential and developed.[570][571] It can be traced to the Middle Ages, when epics and chronicles in Old East Slavic were composed.[633] By the Age of Enlightenment, literature had grown in importance, with works from Mikhail Lomonosov, Denis Fonvizin, Gavrila Derzhavin, and Nikolay Karamzin.[570] From the early 1830s, during the Golden Age of Russian Poetry, literature underwent an astounding golden age in poetry, prose and drama.[634] Romantic literature permitted a flowering of poetic talent: Vasily Zhukovsky and later his protégé Alexander Pushkin came to the fore.[635] Following Pushkin’s footsteps, a new generation of poets were born, including Mikhail Lermontov, Nikolay Nekrasov, Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy, Fyodor Tyutchev and Afanasy Fet.[570]
【参考译文】俄罗斯文学是世界上最具影响力和发展最成熟的文学之一。[570][571] 它的历史可以追溯到中世纪时期,当时人们用古东斯拉夫语创作史诗和编年史作品。[633] 到了启蒙时代,文学的重要性日益增强,米哈伊尔·罗蒙诺索夫(Mikhail Lomonosov)、德米特里·冯维津(Denis Fonvizin)、加夫里拉·杰尔查文(Gavrila Derzhavin)和尼古拉·卡拉姆津(Nikolay Karamzin)等作家的作品推动了俄罗斯文学的发展。[570] 从19世纪30年代初开始,在“俄罗斯诗歌的黄金时代”(Golden Age of Russian Poetry)期间,诗歌、散文和戏剧都迎来了令人瞩目的繁荣时期。[634] 浪漫主义文学为诗歌才华的绽放提供了契机,瓦西里·茹科夫斯基(Vasily Zhukovsky)及其门徒亚历山大·普希金(Alexander Pushkin)成为这一时期的代表人物。[635] 在普希金的影响下,新一代诗人相继涌现,包括米哈伊尔·莱蒙托夫(Mikhail Lermontov)、尼古拉·涅克拉索夫(Nikolay Nekrasov)、阿列克谢·康斯坦丁诺维奇·托尔斯泰(Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy)、费奥多尔·丘特切夫(Fyodor Tyutchev)和阿法纳西·费特(Afanasy Fet)等。[570]
The first great Russian novelist was Nikolai Gogol.[570][636] Then, during the Age of Realism,[570] came Ivan Turgenev, who mastered both short stories and novels.[637] Fyodor Dostoevsky and Leo Tolstoy soon became internationally renowned.[570] Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin wrote prose satire,[570][638] while Nikolai Leskov is best remembered for his shorter fiction.[639] In the second half of the century Anton Chekhov excelled in short stories and became a leading dramatist.[570][640] Other important 19th-century developments included the fabulist Ivan Krylov,[641] non-fiction writers such as the critic Vissarion Belinsky,[570][642] and playwrights such as Aleksandr Griboyedov and Aleksandr Ostrovsky.[643][644] The beginning of the 20th century ranks as the Silver Age of Russian Poetry.[570] This era had poets such as Alexander Blok, Anna Akhmatova, Boris Pasternak, and Konstantin Balmont.[645] It also produced some first-rate novelists and short-story writers, such as Aleksandr Kuprin, Nobel Prize winner Ivan Bunin, Leonid Andreyev, Yevgeny Zamyatin, Dmitry Merezhkovsky and Andrei Bely.[570]
【参考译文】俄罗斯第一位伟大的小说家是尼古拉·果戈里(Nikolai Gogol)。[570][636] 随后,在现实主义时代,[570]伊万·屠格涅夫(Ivan Turgenev)崭露头角,他擅长短篇小说和长篇小说的创作。[637] 紧接着,费奥多尔·陀思妥耶夫斯基(Fyodor Dostoevsky)和列夫·托尔斯泰(Leo Tolstoy)迅速在国际上声名鹊起。[570] 米哈伊尔·萨尔蒂科夫-谢德林(Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin)以讽刺性散文著称,[570][638] 而尼古拉·列斯科夫(Nikolai Leskov)则因他的短篇小说最为人铭记。[639] 在19世纪下半叶,安东·契诃夫(Anton Chekhov)在短篇小说领域表现出色,并成为杰出的剧作家。[570][640] 这一时期其他重要的文学发展还包括:寓言作家伊万·克雷洛夫(Ivan Krylov),[641] 非虚构类作家如评论家维萨里昂·别林斯基(Vissarion Belinsky),[570][642] 以及剧作家亚历山大·格里鲍耶陀夫(Aleksandr Griboyedov)和亚历山大·奥斯特洛夫斯基(Aleksandr Ostrovsky)。[643][644] 20世纪初被称为“俄罗斯诗歌的白银时代”。[570] 这一时期的代表诗人有:亚历山大·勃洛克(Alexander Blok)、安娜·阿赫玛托娃(Anna Akhmatova)、鲍里斯·帕斯捷尔纳克(Boris Pasternak)和康斯坦丁·巴尔蒙特(Konstantin Balmont)。[645] 同时,这一时期也涌现了一批一流的小说家和短篇小说作家,例如亚历山大·库普林(Aleksandr Kuprin)、诺贝尔奖得主伊万·布宁(Ivan Bunin)、列昂尼德·安德烈耶夫(Leonid Andreyev)、叶夫根尼·扎米亚京(Yevgeny Zamyatin)、德米特里·梅列日科夫斯基(Dmitry Merezhkovsky)和安德烈·别雷(Andrei Bely)。[570]
After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Russian literature split into Soviet and white émigré parts. In the 1930s, Socialist realism became the predominant trend in Russia.[570] Its leading figure was Maxim Gorky, who laid the foundations of this style.[648] Mikhail Bulgakov was one of the leading writers of the Soviet era.[649] Nikolay Ostrovsky‘s novel How the Steel Was Tempered has been among the most successful works of Russian literature.[570] Influential émigré writers include Vladimir Nabokov[650] and Isaac Asimov, who was considered one of the “Big Three” science fiction writers.[651] Some writers dared to oppose Soviet ideology, such as Nobel Prize-winning novelist Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, who wrote about life in the Gulag camps.[652]
【参考译文】1917年俄国革命后,俄罗斯文学分裂为苏联文学和白俄流亡派文学两部分。20世纪30年代,社会主义现实主义成为俄罗斯文学中的主流趋势。[570] 这一风格的奠基人和代表人物是马克西姆·高尔基(Maxim Gorky)。[648] 米哈伊尔·布尔加科夫(Mikhail Bulgakov)是苏联时期最具代表性的作家之一。[649]
尼古拉·奥斯特洛夫斯基(Nikolay Ostrovsky)的小说《钢铁是怎样炼成的》是俄罗斯文学中最成功、影响力最大的作品之一。[570] 有影响力的流亡海外的作家包括:弗拉基米尔·纳博科夫(Vladimir Nabokov),[650] 以及被誉为“科幻小说三大巨匠”之一的艾萨克·阿西莫夫(Isaac Asimov)。[651] 也有一些作家敢于反对苏联意识形态,例如曾获诺贝尔奖的小说家亚历山大·索尔仁尼琴(Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn),他以描写劳改营生活的作品而闻名。[652]
During the post-Soviet 1990s writers are already not recognised as very special guides by most Russians.[570] At the beginning of the 21st century, the most discussed figures, postmodernists Victor Pelevin and Vladimir Sorokin remained the leading Russian writers.[653]
【参考译文】在后苏联时代的1990年代,作家已不再被大多数俄罗斯人视为特别重要的思想引导者。[570] 进入21世纪之初,最受关注的作家是后现代主义代表人物维克多·佩列文(Victor Pelevin)和弗拉基米尔·索罗金(Vladimir Sorokin),他们仍然是俄罗斯最重要的作家之一。[653]
Russian philosophy has been influential. Religious and spiritual philosophy is represented by works of Vladimir Solovyov, Nikolai Berdyaev, Pavel Florensky, Semyon Frank, Nikolay Lossky, Vasily Rozanov, and others.[654] Helena Blavatsky gained international following as the leading theoretician of Theosophy, and co-founded the Theosophical Society.[655]
【参考译文】俄罗斯哲学具有重要影响力。宗教与精神哲学的代表人物包括:弗拉基米尔·索洛维约夫(Vladimir Solovyov)、尼古拉·别尔嘉耶夫(Nikolai Berdyaev)、帕维尔·弗洛伦斯基(Pavel Florensky)、谢苗·弗兰克(Semyon Frank)、尼古拉·洛斯基(Nikolay Lossky)、瓦西里·罗赞诺夫(Vasily Rozanov)等人。[654] 海伦娜·布拉瓦茨基(Helena Blavatsky)作为神智学(通灵学)的主要理论家而获得国际影响,并共同创立了神智学会(Theosophical Society)。[655]
Alexander Herzen is known as one of the fathers of agrarian populism.[656] Mikhail Bakunin is referred to as the father of anarchism.[657] Peter Kropotkin was the most important theorist of anarcho-communism.[658] Mikhail Bakhtin‘s writings have significantly inspired scholars.[659] Vladimir Lenin, a major revolutionary, developed a variant of communism known as Leninism.[660] Leon Trotsky, on the other hand, founded Trotskyism.[661] Alexander Zinoviev was a prominent philosopher and writer in the second half of the 20th century.[662] Aleksandr Dugin, known for his fascist views, has been regarded as the “guru of geopolitics”.[663]
【参考译文】亚历山大·赫尔岑(Alexander Herzen)被誉为农耕民粹主义(agrarian populism)的奠基人之一。[656] 米哈伊尔·巴枯宁(Mikhail Bakunin)被称为无政府主义之父。[657] 彼得·克鲁泡特金(Peter Kropotkin)是无政府共产主义(anarcho-communism)最重要的理论家。[658] 米哈伊尔·巴赫金(Mikhail Bakhtin)的著作对学者产生了深远影响。[659] 弗拉基米尔·列宁(Vladimir Lenin)是一位重要的革命人物,他发展了共产主义的一个流派——列宁主义。[660] 列夫·托洛茨基(Leon Trotsky)则是托洛茨基主义(Trotskyism)的创始人。[661] 亚历山大·津琴科(Alexander Zinoviev)是20世纪下半叶著名的哲学家和作家。[662] 亚历山大·杜金(Aleksandr Dugin)因持有法西斯主义观点而闻名,被称作“地缘政治导师”。[663]
7.5 饮食 | Cuisine
See also: Russian cuisine【参见:俄罗斯饮食】
Russian cuisine has been formed by climate, cultural and religious traditions, and the vast geography of the nation, and it shares similarities with the cuisines of its neighbouring countries. Crops of rye, wheat, barley, and millet provide the ingredients for various breads, pancakes and cereals, as well as for many drinks. Bread, of many varieties,[664] is very popular across Russia.[665] Flavourful soups and stews include shchi, borsch, ukha, solyanka, and okroshka. Smetana (a heavy sour cream) and mayonnaise are often added to soups and salads.[666][667] Pirozhki,[668] blini,[669] and syrniki are native types of pancakes.[670] Beef Stroganoff,[671]: 266 Chicken Kiev,[671]: 320 pelmeni,[672] and shashlyk are popular meat dishes.[673] Other meat dishes include stuffed cabbage rolls (golubtsy) usually filled with meat.[674] Salads include Olivier salad,[675] vinegret,[676] and dressed herring.[677]
【参考译文】俄罗斯饮食的形成受到气候、文化与宗教传统以及辽阔地理环境的影响,也与邻国饮食有诸多相似之处。黑麦、小麦、大麦和小米等谷物是各种面包、煎饼和谷类食品,以及许多饮品的主要原料。各式各样的面包在俄罗斯广受欢迎。[664][665] 风味浓郁的汤和炖菜包括:酸菜汤(shchi)、罗宋汤(borsch)、俄式鱼汤(ukha)、盐渍肉汤(solyanka) 和 冷杂拌汤(okroshka)。酸奶油(smetana)和蛋黄酱常被添加在汤和沙拉中。[666][667] 皮罗什基(pirozhki)、薄饼(blini) 和 奶渣饼(syrniki) 是俄罗斯本土特色的煎饼类食物。[668][669][670] 其他著名肉类菜肴包括:斯特罗加诺夫牛肉(Beef Stroganoff)、基辅鸡排(Chicken Kiev)、俄式饺子(pelmeni) 和 烤肉串(shashlyk)。[671][672][673] 此外还有用肉作馅料的卷心菜卷(golubtsy)。[674] 沙拉类菜品包括:奥利维耶沙拉(Olivier salad)、甜菜根沙拉(vinegret) 和 腌鲱鱼沙拉(dressed herring)。[675][676][677]
Russia’s national non-alcoholic drink is kvass,[678] and the national alcoholic drink is vodka; its production in Russia (and elsewhere) dates back to the 14th century.[679] The country has the world’s highest vodka consumption,[680] while beer is the most popular alcoholic beverage.[681] Wine has become increasingly popular in Russia in the 21st century.[682] Tea has been popular in Russia for centuries.[683]
【参考译文】俄罗斯的国家非酒精饮料是克瓦斯(kvass),而国家酒精饮料则是伏特加(vodka),其在俄罗斯(以及其他地区)的生产历史可追溯至14世纪。[678][679] 俄罗斯是世界上伏特加消费量最高的国家,[680] 而啤酒则是最受欢迎的酒精饮品。[681] 进入21世纪后,葡萄酒在俄罗斯越来越受欢迎。[682] 茶在俄罗斯已有数百年饮用历史,尤其以俄式茶炊文化著称。[683]
7.6 大众媒体与电影 | Mass media and cinema
Main articles: Media of Russia and Cinema of Russia【主条目:俄罗斯媒体 和 俄罗斯电影】
There are 400 news agencies in Russia, among which the largest internationally operating are TASS, RIA Novosti, Sputnik, and Interfax.[685] Television is the most popular medium in Russia.[686] Among the 3,000 licensed radio stations nationwide, notable ones include Radio Rossii, Vesti FM, Echo of Moscow, Radio Mayak, and Russkoye Radio. Of the 16,000 registered newspapers, Argumenty i Fakty, Komsomolskaya Pravda, Rossiyskaya Gazeta, Izvestia, and Moskovskij Komsomolets are popular. State-run Channel One and Russia-1 are the leading news channels, while RT is the flagship of Russia’s international media operations.[686] Russia has the largest video gaming market in Europe, with over 65 million players nationwide.[687]
【参考译文】俄罗斯共有400家新闻机构,其中在国际上具有影响力的包括:塔斯社(TASS)、俄罗斯新闻社(RIA Novosti)、卫星通讯社(Sputnik) 和 国际文传电讯社(Interfax)。[685] 在各类媒体中,电视是俄罗斯最受欢迎的信息来源。[686] 全国范围内有3,000个持牌广播电台,其中著名的包括:俄罗斯广播电台(Radio Rossii)、维斯蒂调频(Vesti FM)、莫斯科回声(Echo of Moscow)、灯塔广播电台(Radio Mayak) 和 俄罗斯之声广播(Russkoye Radio)。在16,000份注册报纸中,较受欢迎的包括:《论据与事实》(Argumenty i Fakty)、《共青团真理报》(Komsomolskaya Pravda)、《俄罗斯报》(Rossiyskaya Gazeta)、《消息报》(Izvestia)和《莫斯科共青团员报》(Moskovskij Komsomolets)。由国家运营的第一频道(Channel One)和俄罗斯-1(Russia-1)是俄罗斯主要的新闻频道,而今日俄罗斯(RT)则是俄罗斯对外媒体运作的旗舰平台。[686] 俄罗斯是欧洲最大的电子游戏市场,拥有超过6,500万名玩家。[687]
Russian and later Soviet cinema was a hotbed of invention, resulting in world-renowned films such as Battleship Potemkin, which was named the greatest film of all time at the Brussels World’s Fair in 1958.[688][689] Soviet-era filmmakers, most notably Sergei Eisenstein and Andrei Tarkovsky, would go on to become among of the world’s most innovative and influential directors.[690][691] Eisenstein was a student of Lev Kuleshov, who developed the groundbreaking Soviet montage theory of film editing at the world’s first film school, the All-Union Institute of Cinematography.[692] Dziga Vertov‘s “Kino-Eye” theory had a large effect on the development of documentary filmmaking and cinema realism.[693] Many Soviet socialist realism films were artistically successful, including Chapaev, The Cranes Are Flying, and Ballad of a Soldier.[581]
【参考译文】俄罗斯乃至后来的苏联电影一直是创新的温床,诞生了许多世界闻名的影片,例如《战舰波将金号》(Battleship Potemkin),该片于1958年在布鲁塞尔世博会被评选为“有史以来最伟大的电影”。[688][689] 苏联时期的电影制作人中,尤以谢尔盖·爱森斯坦(Sergei Eisenstein)和安德烈·塔可夫斯基(Andrei Tarkovsky)最为著名,他们后来成为世界上最具创造力和影响力的导演之一。[690][691] 爱森斯坦是列夫·库里肖夫(Lev Kuleshov)的学生,而后者在世界上第一所电影学院——全苏电影学院(All-Union Institute of Cinematography)创立了开创性的苏联蒙太奇剪辑理论。[692] 齐加·维尔托夫(Dziga Vertov)提出的“电影眼”(Kino-Eye)理论对纪录片制作和电影现实主义的发展产生了深远影响。[693] 许多苏联社会主义现实主义电影也取得了艺术上的成功,例如《夏伯阳》(Chapaev)、《雁南飞》(The Cranes Are Flying)和《士兵之歌》(Ballad of a Soldier)。[581]
The 1960s and 1970s saw a greater variety of artistic styles in Soviet cinema.[581] The comedies of Eldar Ryazanov and Leonid Gaidai of that time were immensely popular, with many of the catchphrases still in use today.[694][695] In 1961–68 Sergey Bondarchuk directed an Oscar-winning film adaptation of Leo Tolstoy’s epic War and Peace, which was the most expensive film made in the Soviet Union.[581] In 1969, Vladimir Motyl‘s White Sun of the Desert was released, a very popular film in a genre of ostern; the film is traditionally watched by cosmonauts before any trip into space.[696] After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Russian cinema industry suffered large losses—however, since the late 2000s, it has seen growth once again, and continues to expand.[697]
【参考译文】20世纪60至70年代,苏联电影呈现出更加多样的艺术风格。[581] 当时由埃达尔·梁赞诺夫(Eldar Ryazanov)和列昂尼德·盖代(Leonid Gaidai)执导的喜剧作品广受欢迎,许多影片中的流行台词至今仍在日常生活中被使用。[694][695] 1961年至1968年间,谢尔盖·邦达尔丘克(Sergey Bondarchuk)执导了根据列夫·托尔斯泰史诗作品改编的电影《战争与和平》(War and Peace),该片荣获奥斯卡奖,并是苏联历史上成本最高的电影。[581] 1969年,弗拉基米尔·莫季尔(Vladimir Motyl)执导的《荒漠中的白日》(White Sun of the Desert)上映,这是一部非常受欢迎的“东方西部片”(ostern)。这部影片已成为一种传统,俄罗斯宇航员在前往太空执行任务前都会观看此片。[696] 苏联解体后,俄罗斯电影产业一度遭受严重损失。然而,自2000年代末以来,俄罗斯电影业开始恢复并持续发展。[697]
3部苏联和1部俄罗斯电影得到奥斯卡金像奖:战争与和平 (电影系列)(1967年,导演谢尔盖·邦达尔丘克)、德苏乌扎拉(1976年,导演黑泽明)、莫斯科不相信眼泪(1980年,导演弗拉基米尔·缅绍夫)和毒太阳(1994年,导演尼基塔·米哈尔科夫)。电影雁南飞(导演米哈伊尔·卡拉托佐夫)在1958年戛纳电影节获得金棕榈奖。
7.7 体育运动 | Sports
Main article: Sport in Russia【主条目:俄罗斯体育】
Football is the most popular sport in Russia.[698] The Soviet Union national football team became the first European champions by winning Euro 1960,[699] and reached the finals of Euro 1988.[700] Russian clubs CSKA Moscow and Zenit Saint Petersburg won the UEFA Cup in 2005 and 2008.[701][702] The Russian national football team reached the semi-finals of Euro 2008.[703] Russia was the host nation for the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup,[704] and the 2018 FIFA World Cup.[705] However, Russian teams are currently suspended from FIFA and UEFA competitions.[706]
【参考译文】足球是俄罗斯最受欢迎的体育项目。[698] 苏联国家足球队曾于1960年赢得首届欧洲杯,成为首个欧洲冠军,[699] 并在1988年打入欧洲杯决赛。[700] 俄罗斯俱乐部莫斯科中央陆军(CSKA Moscow)和圣彼得堡泽尼特(Zenit Saint Petersburg)分别在2005年和2008年赢得了** UEFA 杯**(欧联杯前身)。[701][702] 俄罗斯国家足球队曾在2008年欧洲杯中打进半决赛。[703] 俄罗斯曾是2017年国际足联联合会杯的东道主,[704] 并举办了2018年国际足联世界杯。[705] 然而,目前俄罗斯球队已被国际足联(FIFA)和欧足联(UEFA)暂停参赛资格。[706]
Ice hockey is very popular in Russia, and the Soviet national ice hockey team dominated the sport internationally throughout its existence.[578] Bandy is Russia’s national sport, and it has historically been the highest-achieving country in the sport.[708] The Russian national basketball team won the EuroBasket 2007,[709] and the Russian basketball club PBC CSKA Moscow is among the most successful European basketball teams.[710] The annual Formula One Russian Grand Prix was held at the Sochi Autodrom in the Sochi Olympic Park, until its termination following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022.[711][712]
【参考译文】冰球在俄罗斯非常受欢迎,苏联国家冰球队在其存在期间一直在国际赛场上占据统治地位。[578] 班迪球(Bandy)是俄罗斯的国家体育项目,历史上俄罗斯在这个项目上也取得了最辉煌的成绩。[708] 俄罗斯国家篮球队曾赢得2007年欧洲篮球锦标赛(EuroBasket 2007),[709] 俄罗斯俱乐部莫斯科中央陆军职业篮球队(PBC CSKA Moscow)也是欧洲最成功的篮球队之一。[710] 一年一度的F1俄罗斯大奖赛曾在索契奥林匹克公园内的索契赛道(Sochi Autodrom)举行,直到2022年因俄罗斯入侵乌克兰而终止。[711][712]
Historically, Russian athletes have been one of the most successful contenders in the Olympic Games.[578] Russia is the leading nation in rhythmic gymnastics, and Russian synchronised swimming is considered to be the world’s best.[713] Figure skating is another popular sport in Russia, especially pair skating and ice dancing.[714] Russia has produced numerous prominent tennis players.[715] Chess is also a widely popular pastime in the nation, with many of the world’s top chess players being Russian for decades.[716] The 1980 Summer Olympic Games were held in Moscow,[717] and the 2014 Winter Olympics and the 2014 Winter Paralympics were hosted in Sochi.[718][719] However, Russia has also had 43 Olympic medals stripped from its athletes due to doping violations, which is the most of any country, and nearly a third of the global total.[720]
【参考译文】历史上,俄罗斯运动员在奥运会中一直是最具竞争力的参赛队伍之一。[578] 俄罗斯在艺术体操领域处于世界领先地位,在花样游泳方面也被公认为世界第一。[713] 花样滑冰在俄罗斯也很受欢迎,尤其是双人滑和冰舞项目。[714] 俄罗斯还培养出众多著名的网球选手。[715] 国际象棋在俄罗斯也非常流行,几十年来,世界上许多顶尖棋手都来自俄罗斯。[716] 1980年夏季奥运会曾在莫斯科举办;[717] 2014年冬季奥运会和残奥会则在索契举行。[718][719] 然而,由于兴奋剂违规问题,俄罗斯已有43枚奥运奖牌被剥夺,这是全球最多的纪录,几乎占全球总数的三分之一。[720]
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