{"id":5667,"date":"2025-06-09T22:35:19","date_gmt":"2025-06-09T14:35:19","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/cathayvista.top\/?p=5667"},"modified":"2025-06-09T22:35:21","modified_gmt":"2025-06-09T14:35:21","slug":"russia-fulltext-zhen","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/cathayvista.top\/index.php\/2025\/06\/09\/russia-fulltext-zhen\/","title":{"rendered":"\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af \/ Russia -\uff08\u5168\u6587\uff09\u4e2d\u82f1\u6587\u7ef4\u57fa\u767e\u79d1\u8bcd\u6761\u878d\u5408"},"content":{"rendered":"\n
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0. \u6982\u8ff0<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

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\u56fe0-1\u81f30-3\uff08\u53d1\u5e03\u4e8e\u77e5\u4e4e\u60f3\u6cd5\uff09<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

0.1 \u6587\u5b57\u8bf4\u660e<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

\u8fbd\u89c2\u6ce8\uff1a\u6b64\u6807\u9898\u662f\u6211\u4eec\u5728\u642c\u8fd0\u3001\u6574\u5408\u8fc7\u7a0b\u4e2d\u6dfb\u52a0\u7684\u3002<\/p>\n\n\n\n

ussia<\/strong>,[Russian:\u00a0\u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f,\u00a0romanized:\u00a0<\/small>Rossiya<\/em>,\u00a0[r\u0250\u02c8s\u02b2ij\u0259]]<\/sup>\u00a0or the\u00a0Russian Federation<\/strong>,[Russian:\u00a0\u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0424\u0435\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f,\u00a0romanized:<\/small>\u00a0Rossiyskaya Federatsiya<\/em>,\u00a0IPA:\u00a0[r\u0250\u02c8s\u02b2ijsk\u0259j\u0259\u00a0f\u02b2\u026ad\u02b2\u026a\u02c8rats\u0268j\u0259]]<\/sup>\u00a0is a country spanning\u00a0Eastern Europe<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0North Asia<\/a>. It is the\u00a0largest country in the world<\/a>, and extends across\u00a0eleven time zones<\/a>, sharing\u00a0land borders with fourteen countries<\/a>.[The fourteen countries bordering Russia are[18]<\/sup>\u00a0Norway\u00a0and\u00a0Finland\u00a0to the northwest;\u00a0Estonia,\u00a0Latvia,\u00a0Belarus\u00a0and\u00a0Ukraine\u00a0to the west, as well as\u00a0Lithuania\u00a0and\u00a0Poland\u00a0(with\u00a0Kaliningrad Oblast);\u00a0Georgia\u00a0and\u00a0Azerbaijan\u00a0to the southwest;\u00a0Kazakhstan\u00a0and\u00a0Mongolia\u00a0to the south;\u00a0China\u00a0and\u00a0North Korea\u00a0to the southeast. Russia also shares\u00a0maritime boundaries\u00a0with Japan and the United States. Russia also shares borders with the two\u00a0partially recognised\u00a0breakaway states of\u00a0South Ossetia\u00a0and\u00a0Abkhazia\u00a0that it occupies in Georgia.]<\/sup>\u00a0Russia is the\u00a0most populous country in Europe<\/a>\u00a0and the\u00a0ninth-most populous country in the world<\/a>. It is a\u00a0highly urbanised country<\/a>, with sixteen of its urban areas having more than 1\u00a0million inhabitants.\u00a0Moscow<\/a>, the\u00a0most populous metropolitan area in Europe<\/a>, is the capital and\u00a0largest city of Russia<\/a>, while\u00a0Saint Petersburg<\/a>\u00a0is its second-largest city and\u00a0cultural centre<\/a>.
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af[\u4fc4\u8bed<\/a>:\u00a0\u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f,\u00a0\u7f57\u9a6c\u5316\u5199\u6cd5<\/a>:\u00a0<\/small>Rossiya<\/em>,\u00a0[r\u0250\u02c8s\u02b2ij\u0259]<\/a>]<\/sup>\uff0c\u6216\u79f0\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u8054\u90a6[\u4fc4\u8bed:\u00a0\u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0424\u0435\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f,\u00a0\u7f57\u9a6c\u5316\u5199\u6cd5<\/a>:<\/small>\u00a0Rossiyskaya Federatsiya<\/em>,\u00a0\u56fd\u9645\u97f3\u6807:\u00a0[r\u0250\u02c8s\u02b2ijsk\u0259j\u0259\u00a0f\u02b2\u026ad\u02b2\u026a\u02c8rats\u0268j\u0259]<\/a>]<\/sup>\uff0c\u662f\u4e00\u4e2a\u6a2a\u8de8\u4e1c\u6b27\u548c\u5317\u4e9a\u7684\u56fd\u5bb6\u3002\u5b83\u662f\u4e16\u754c\u4e0a\u9762\u79ef\u6700\u5927\u7684\u56fd\u5bb6\uff0c\u8de8\u8d8a11\u4e2a\u65f6\u533a\uff0c\u4e0e14\u4e2a\u56fd\u5bb6\u63a5\u58e4\u9646\u5730\u8fb9\u754c[\u4e0e\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u63a5\u58e4\u7684\u5341\u56db\u4e2a\u56fd\u5bb6\u662f[18]\uff1a\u897f\u5317\u90e8\u7684\u632a\u5a01\u548c\u82ac\u5170\uff1b\u897f\u90e8\u7684\u7231\u6c99\u5c3c\u4e9a\u3001\u62c9\u8131\u7ef4\u4e9a\u3001\u767d\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u548c\u4e4c\u514b\u5170\uff0c\u4ee5\u53ca\u7acb\u9676\u5b9b\u548c\u6ce2\u5170\uff08\u52a0\u91cc\u5b81\u683c\u52d2\u5dde\uff09\uff1b\u897f\u5357\u90e8\u7684\u683c\u9c81\u5409\u4e9a\u548c\u963f\u585e\u62dc\u7586\uff1b\u5357\u90e8\u7684\u54c8\u8428\u514b\u65af\u5766\u548c\u8499\u53e4\uff1b\u4e1c\u5357\u90e8\u7684\u4e2d\u56fd\u548c\u671d\u9c9c\u3002\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u8fd8\u4e0e\u65e5\u672c\u548c\u7f8e\u56fd\u9694\u6d77\u76f8\u671b\u3002\u6b64\u5916\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u8fd8\u4e0e\u4e24\u4e2a\u90e8\u5206\u88ab\u627f\u8ba4\u7684\u5206\u79bb\u5730\u533a\u2014\u2014\u5357\u5965\u585e\u68af\u548c\u963f\u5e03\u54c8\u5179\u63a5\u58e4\uff0c\u8fd9\u4e24\u4e2a\u5730\u533a\u4f4d\u4e8e\u683c\u9c81\u5409\u4e9a\u5883\u5185\u5e76\u7531\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5b9e\u9645\u63a7\u5236\u3002]<\/sup>\u3002\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u662f\u6b27\u6d32\u4eba\u53e3\u6700\u591a\u7684\u56fd\u5bb6\uff0c\u4e5f\u662f\u4e16\u754c\u7b2c\u4e5d\u5927\u4eba\u53e3\u56fd\u3002\u8be5\u56fd\u9ad8\u5ea6\u57ce\u5e02\u5316\uff0c\u62e5\u670916\u4e2a\u8d85\u8fc7100\u4e07\u4eba\u53e3\u7684\u57ce\u5e02\u5730\u533a\u3002\u83ab\u65af\u79d1\u662f\u6b27\u6d32\u4eba\u53e3\u6700\u591a\u7684\u5927\u90fd\u4f1a\u533a\uff0c\u4e5f\u662f\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u7684\u9996\u90fd\u548c\u6700\u5927\u57ce\u5e02\uff0c\u5723\u5f7c\u5f97\u5821\u5219\u662f\u5176\u7b2c\u4e8c\u5927\u57ce\u5e02\u548c\u6587\u5316\u4e2d\u5fc3\u3002<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Human settlement on the territory of modern Russia dates back to the\u00a0Lower Paleolithic<\/a>. The\u00a0East Slavs<\/a>\u00a0emerged as a recognised group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries CE. The first East Slavic state,\u00a0Kievan Rus’<\/a>, arose in the 9th century, and in 988, it adopted\u00a0Orthodox Christianity<\/a>\u00a0from the\u00a0Byzantine Empire<\/a>. Kievan Rus’ ultimately disintegrated; the\u00a0Grand Duchy of Moscow<\/a>\u00a0led the unification of Russian lands, leading to the proclamation of the\u00a0Tsardom of Russia<\/a>\u00a0in 1547. By the early 18th century, Russia had vastly expanded through conquest, annexation, and the efforts of\u00a0Russian explorers<\/a>, developing into the\u00a0Russian Empire<\/a>, which remains the\u00a0third-largest empire in history<\/a>. However, with the\u00a0Russian Revolution<\/a>\u00a0in 1917, Russia’s monarchic rule\u00a0was abolished<\/a>\u00a0and eventually replaced by the\u00a0Russian SFSR<\/a>\u2014the world’s first constitutionally\u00a0socialist state<\/a>. Following the\u00a0Russian Civil War<\/a>, the Russian SFSR established the\u00a0Soviet Union<\/a>\u00a0with three other\u00a0Soviet republics<\/a>, within which it was the largest and principal constituent. The Soviet Union underwent\u00a0rapid industrialisation in the 1930s<\/a>, amidst the\u00a0deaths of millions<\/a>\u00a0under\u00a0Joseph Stalin<\/a>‘s rule, and later played a decisive role for the\u00a0Allies in World War II<\/a>\u00a0by leading large-scale efforts on the\u00a0Eastern Front<\/a>. With the onset of the\u00a0Cold War<\/a>, it competed with the\u00a0United States<\/a>\u00a0for\u00a0ideological dominance<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0international influence<\/a>. The Soviet era of the 20th century saw some of the\u00a0most significant Russian technological achievements<\/a>, including the\u00a0first human-made satellite<\/a>\u00a0and the\u00a0first human expedition into outer space<\/a>.
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u4eba\u7c7b\u5728\u4eca\u5929\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5883\u5185\u7684\u5c45\u4f4f\u5386\u53f2\u53ef\u4ee5\u8ffd\u6eaf\u5230\u65e7\u77f3\u5668\u65f6\u4ee3\u65e9\u671f\u3002\u4e1c\u65af\u62c9\u592b\u4eba\u4f5c\u4e3a\u4e00\u4e2a\u516c\u8ba4\u7684\u65cf\u7fa4\u7fa4\u4f53\uff0c\u5728\u516c\u51433\u4e16\u7eaa\u81f38\u4e16\u7eaa\u4e4b\u95f4\u5728\u6b27\u6d32\u51fa\u73b0\u3002\u7b2c\u4e00\u4e2a\u4e1c\u65af\u62c9\u592b\u56fd\u5bb6\u57fa\u8f85\u7f57\u65af\uff08Kievan Rus’\uff09\u8bde\u751f\u4e8e9\u4e16\u7eaa\uff0c\u5e76\u4e8e\u516c\u5143988\u5e74\u63a5\u53d7\u4e86\u6765\u81ea\u62dc\u5360\u5ead\u5e1d\u56fd\u7684\u4e1c\u6b63\u6559\u57fa\u7763\u6559\u3002\u57fa\u8f85\u7f57\u65af\u6700\u7ec8\u89e3\u4f53\u540e\uff0c\u83ab\u65af\u79d1\u5927\u516c\u56fd\u9886\u5bfc\u4e86\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u571f\u5730\u7684\u7edf\u4e00\uff0c\u5e76\u4e8e1547\u5e74\u5ba3\u5e03\u6210\u7acb\u6c99\u7687\u4fc4\u56fd\u3002\u5230\u4e8618\u4e16\u7eaa\u521d\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u901a\u8fc7\u5f81\u670d\u3001\u517c\u5e76\u4ee5\u53ca\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u63a2\u9669\u5bb6\u7684\u52aa\u529b\u8fc5\u901f\u6269\u5f20\uff0c\u53d1\u5c55\u4e3a\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5e1d\u56fd\uff0c\u6210\u4e3a\u5386\u53f2\u4e0a\u7b2c\u4e09\u5927\u7684\u5e1d\u56fd\u3002\u7136\u800c\uff0c\u968f\u77401917\u5e74\u7684\u4fc4\u56fd\u9769\u547d\uff0c\u541b\u4e3b\u5236\u88ab\u5e9f\u9664\uff0c\u5e76\u6700\u7ec8\u88ab\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u82cf\u7ef4\u57c3\u8054\u90a6\u793e\u4f1a\u4e3b\u4e49\u5171\u548c\u56fd\uff08\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u82cf\u7ef4\u57c3\u8054\u90a6\uff09\u53d6\u4ee3\u2014\u2014\u8fd9\u662f\u4e16\u754c\u4e0a\u9996\u4e2a\u5baa\u6cd5\u610f\u4e49\u4e0a\u7684\u793e\u4f1a\u4e3b\u4e49\u56fd\u5bb6\u3002\u4fc4\u56fd\u5185\u6218\u7ed3\u675f\u540e\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u82cf\u7ef4\u57c3\u8054\u90a6\u4e0e\u5176\u4ed6\u4e09\u4e2a\u82cf\u7ef4\u57c3\u5171\u548c\u56fd\u5171\u540c\u5efa\u7acb\u4e86\u82cf\u8054\uff0c\u5e76\u5728\u5176\u4e2d\u4f5c\u4e3a\u6700\u5927\u548c\u6700\u91cd\u8981\u7684\u6210\u5458\u300220\u4e16\u7eaa30\u5e74\u4ee3\uff0c\u82cf\u8054\u5b9e\u73b0\u4e86\u5feb\u901f\u5de5\u4e1a\u5316\uff0c\u5c3d\u7ba1\u5728\u7ea6\u745f\u592b\u00b7\u65af\u5927\u6797\u7edf\u6cbb\u4e0b\u6709\u6570\u767e\u4e07\u4eba\u6b7b\u4ea1\u3002\u968f\u540e\uff0c\u5b83\u5728\u7b2c\u4e8c\u6b21\u4e16\u754c\u5927\u6218\u4e2d\u53d1\u6325\u4e86\u51b3\u5b9a\u6027\u4f5c\u7528\uff0c\u9886\u5bfc\u4e86\u4e1c\u7ebf\u6218\u573a\u4e0a\u7684\u5927\u89c4\u6a21\u4f5c\u6218\u884c\u52a8\u3002\u51b7\u6218\u5f00\u59cb\u540e\uff0c\u82cf\u8054\u4e0e\u7f8e\u56fd\u5c55\u5f00\u610f\u8bc6\u5f62\u6001\u4e3b\u5bfc\u6743\u548c\u56fd\u9645\u5f71\u54cd\u529b\u7684\u7ade\u4e89\u300220\u4e16\u7eaa\u7684\u82cf\u8054\u65f6\u671f\u89c1\u8bc1\u4e86\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u4e00\u4e9b\u6700\u91cd\u5927\u7684\u79d1\u6280\u6210\u5c31\uff0c\u5305\u62ec\u7b2c\u4e00\u9897\u4eba\u9020\u536b\u661f\u548c\u9996\u6b21\u8f7d\u4eba\u8fdb\u5165\u592a\u7a7a\u3002<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In 1991, the Russian SFSR emerged from the\u00a0dissolution of the Soviet Union<\/a>\u00a0as the Russian Federation.\u00a0A new constitution<\/a>\u00a0was adopted, which established a\u00a0federal<\/a>\u00a0semi-presidential system<\/a>. Since the turn of the century, Russia’s political system has been dominated by\u00a0Vladimir Putin<\/a>,\u00a0under whom<\/a>\u00a0the country has experienced\u00a0democratic backsliding<\/a>\u00a0and become an\u00a0authoritarian<\/a>\u00a0dictatorship<\/a>.\u00a0Russia has been militarily involved<\/a>\u00a0in a number of\u00a0conflicts in former Soviet states and other countries<\/a>, including\u00a0its war with Georgia<\/a>\u00a0in 2008 and\u00a0its war with Ukraine<\/a>\u00a0since 2014. The latter has involved the internationally unrecognised\u00a0annexations<\/a>\u00a0of Ukrainian territory, including\u00a0Crimea in 2014<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0four other regions in 2022<\/a>, during\u00a0an ongoing invasion<\/a>.
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u30111991\u5e74\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u82cf\u7ef4\u57c3\u8054\u90a6\u4ece\u82cf\u8054\u89e3\u4f53\u4e2d\u72ec\u7acb\u51fa\u6765\uff0c\u6210\u4e3a\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u8054\u90a6\u3002\u968f\u540e\u901a\u8fc7\u4e86\u4e00\u90e8\u65b0\u5baa\u6cd5\uff0c\u786e\u7acb\u4e86\u4e00\u4e2a\u8054\u90a6\u534a\u603b\u7edf\u5236\u653f\u4f53\u3002\u81ea21\u4e16\u7eaa\u4ee5\u6765\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u7684\u653f\u6cbb\u4f53\u7cfb\u4e00\u76f4\u7531\u5f17\u62c9\u57fa\u7c73\u5c14\u00b7\u666e\u4eac\u4e3b\u5bfc\uff0c\u5728\u4ed6\u7684\u9886\u5bfc\u4e0b\uff0c\u8be5\u56fd\u7ecf\u5386\u4e86\u6c11\u4e3b\u5012\u9000\uff0c\u6210\u4e3a\u4e00\u4e2a\u5a01\u6743\u72ec\u88c1\u56fd\u5bb6\u3002\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u53c2\u4e0e\u4e86\u591a\u4e2a\u524d\u82cf\u8054\u56fd\u5bb6\u548c\u5176\u4ed6\u56fd\u5bb6\u7684\u519b\u4e8b\u51b2\u7a81\uff0c\u5305\u62ec2008\u5e74\u4e0e\u683c\u9c81\u5409\u4e9a\u7684\u6218\u4e89\uff0c\u4ee5\u53ca\u81ea2014\u5e74\u4ee5\u6765\u5bf9\u4e4c\u514b\u5170\u7684\u6218\u4e89\u3002\u8fd9\u573a\u6218\u4e89\u5305\u62ec\u4e00\u4e9b\u672a\u83b7\u56fd\u9645\u627f\u8ba4\u7684\u9886\u571f\u541e\u5e76\u884c\u4e3a\uff0c\u59822014\u5e74\u517c\u5e76\u514b\u91cc\u7c73\u4e9a\uff0c\u4ee5\u53ca\u57282022\u5e74\u6b63\u5728\u8fdb\u884c\u7684\u5165\u4fb5\u671f\u95f4\u975e\u6cd5\u541e\u5e76\u53e6\u5916\u56db\u4e2a\u4e4c\u514b\u5170\u5730\u533a\u3002<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Russia is generally considered a\u00a0great power<\/a>\u00a0and is a\u00a0regional power<\/a>, possessing the\u00a0largest stockpile of nuclear weapons<\/a>\u00a0and having the\u00a0third-highest military expenditure in the world<\/a>. It has a\u00a0high-income economy<\/a>, which is the\u00a0eleventh-largest in the world<\/a>\u00a0by nominal GDP and\u00a0fourth-largest<\/a>\u00a0by\u00a0PPP<\/a>, relying on its\u00a0vast mineral and energy resources<\/a>, which rank as the second-largest in the world for\u00a0oil<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0natural gas production<\/a>. However, Russia\u00a0ranks very low<\/a>\u00a0in international measurements of\u00a0democracy<\/a>,\u00a0human rights<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0freedom of the press<\/a>, and also has\u00a0high levels of perceived corruption<\/a>. It is a\u00a0permanent member of the United Nations Security Council<\/a>; a member state of the\u00a0G20<\/a>,\u00a0SCO<\/a>,\u00a0BRICS<\/a>,\u00a0APEC<\/a>,\u00a0OSCE<\/a>, and\u00a0WTO<\/a>; and the leading member state of post-Soviet organisations such as\u00a0CIS<\/a>,\u00a0CSTO<\/a>, and\u00a0EAEU<\/a>. Russia is home to\u00a032 UNESCO World Heritage Sites<\/a>.
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u901a\u5e38\u88ab\u89c6\u4e3a\u4e00\u4e2a\u5168\u7403\u5927\u56fd\u548c\u5730\u533a\u5f3a\u56fd\uff0c\u62e5\u6709\u4e16\u754c\u6700\u5927\u7684\u6838\u6b66\u50a8\u5907\uff0c\u5e76\u4e14\u519b\u8d39\u5f00\u652f\u4f4d\u5c45\u5168\u7403\u7b2c\u4e09\u3002\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u62e5\u6709\u9ad8\u6536\u5165\u7ecf\u6d4e\u4f53\uff0c\u6309\u540d\u4e49GDP\u8ba1\u7b97\u4e3a\u4e16\u754c\u7b2c\u5341\u4e00\u7ecf\u6d4e\u5927\u56fd\uff0c\u6309\u8d2d\u4e70\u529b\u5e73\u4ef7\uff08PPP\uff09\u8ba1\u7b97\u4e3a\u7b2c\u56db\u5927\u7ecf\u6d4e\u4f53\uff0c\u5176\u7ecf\u6d4e\u4f9d\u8d56\u4e8e\u4e30\u5bcc\u7684\u77ff\u4ea7\u548c\u80fd\u6e90\u8d44\u6e90\uff0c\u77f3\u6cb9\u548c\u5929\u7136\u6c14\u4ea7\u91cf\u5c45\u4e16\u754c\u7b2c\u4e8c\u4f4d\u3002\u7136\u800c\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5728\u56fd\u9645\u4e0a\u5173\u4e8e\u6c11\u4e3b\u3001\u4eba\u6743\u548c\u65b0\u95fb\u81ea\u7531\u7684\u8bc4\u4f30\u4e2d\u6392\u540d\u975e\u5e38\u4f4e\uff0c\u8150\u8d25\u73b0\u8c61\u4e5f\u8f83\u4e3a\u4e25\u91cd\u3002\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u662f\u8054\u5408\u56fd\u5b89\u7406\u4f1a\u5e38\u4efb\u7406\u4e8b\u56fd\uff1b\u662f\u4e8c\u5341\u56fd\u96c6\u56e2\uff08G20\uff09\u3001\u4e0a\u6d77\u5408\u4f5c\u7ec4\u7ec7\uff08SCO\uff09\u3001\u91d1\u7816\u56fd\u5bb6\uff08BRICS\uff09\u3001\u4e9a\u592a\u7ecf\u5408\u7ec4\u7ec7\uff08APEC\uff09\u3001\u6b27\u5b89\u7ec4\u7ec7\uff08OSCE\uff09\u548c\u4e16\u754c\u8d38\u6613\u7ec4\u7ec7\uff08WTO\uff09\u6210\u5458\u56fd\uff1b\u540c\u65f6\u4e5f\u662f\u540e\u82cf\u8054\u7ec4\u7ec7\u7684\u4e3b\u8981\u6210\u5458\u56fd\uff0c\u5982\u72ec\u7acb\u56fd\u5bb6\u8054\u5408\u4f53\uff08CIS\uff09\u3001\u96c6\u4f53\u5b89\u5168\u6761\u7ea6\u7ec4\u7ec7\uff08CSTO\uff09\u548c\u6b27\u4e9a\u7ecf\u6d4e\u8054\u76df\uff08EAEU\uff09\u3002\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5883\u5185\u62e5\u670932\u5904\u8054\u5408\u56fd\u6559\u79d1\u6587\u7ec4\u7ec7\u8ba4\u5b9a\u7684\u4e16\u754c\u9057\u4ea7\u5730\u3002<\/p>\n\n\n\n

0.2 \u6982\u51b5\u8868\u683c<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

\u8fbd\u89c2\u6ce8\uff1a\u6b64\u6807\u9898\u662f\u6211\u4eec\u5728\u642c\u8fd0\u3001\u6574\u5408\u8fc7\u7a0b\u4e2d\u6dfb\u52a0\u7684\u3002<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u8054\u90a6\u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0424\u0435\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f\uff08\u4fc4\u8bed<\/a>\uff09<\/th><\/tr>
\u56fd\u6b4c\uff1a<\/strong>\u300a\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u8054\u90a6\u56fd\u6b4c<\/a>\u300b\u0413\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0433\u0438\u043c\u043d \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0424\u0435\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438
<\/a>\u65f6\u957f\uff1a1\u520622\u79d2\u30021:22<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>
\u9996\u90fd\u66a8\u6700\u5927\u57ce\u5e02<\/th>\u83ab\u65af\u79d1<\/a>
\"\"55\u00b045\u2032N 37\u00b037\u2032E<\/a><\/td><\/tr>
\u5b98\u65b9\u8bed\u8a00<\/th>\u4fc4\u8bed<\/a><\/td><\/tr>
\u8ba4\u53ef\u7684\u8bed\u8a00<\/th>35\u79cd\u5730\u65b9\u8bed\u8a00<\/a><\/td><\/tr>
\u65cf\u7fa4<\/a>\uff082011\u5e74\uff09<\/th>\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u65cf<\/a>\uff0881%\uff09
\u9791\u977c\u65cf<\/a>\uff083.7%\uff09
\u4e4c\u514b\u5170\u65cf<\/a>\uff081.4%\uff09
\u5df4\u4ec0\u57fa\u5c14\u65cf<\/a>\uff081.1%\uff09
\u695a\u74e6\u4ec0\u65cf<\/a>\uff081.8%\uff09
\u8f66\u81e3\u4eba<\/a>\uff080.8%\uff09
\u5176\u4ed6\uff0811%\uff09[1]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr>
\u653f\u5e9c<\/th>\u6cd5\u5f8b\u4e0a:<\/strong>\u8054\u90a6<\/a>\u534a\u603b\u7edf\u5236<\/a>\u7684\u7acb\u5baa<\/a>\u5171\u548c\u56fd<\/a>[2]<\/a><\/sup>\u4e8b\u5b9e\u4e0a:<\/strong>\u4e00\u515a\u72ec\u5927<\/a>\u4e14\u4e2a\u4eba\u72ec\u88c1<\/a>\u7684\u6df7\u5408\u5236\u5171\u548c\u56fd<\/a>[3]<\/a><\/sup>[4]<\/a><\/sup>[5]<\/a><\/sup>[6]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr>
\u2022 \u603b\u7edf<\/a><\/th>\u5f17\u62c9\u57fa\u7c73\u5c14\u00b7\u666e\u4eac<\/a><\/td><\/tr>
\u2022 \u603b\u7406<\/a><\/th>\u7c73\u54c8\u4f0a\u5c14\u00b7\u7c73\u8212\u65af\u4eac<\/a><\/td><\/tr>
\u2022 \u8054\u90a6\u59d4\u5458\u4f1a\u4e3b\u5e2d<\/a><\/th>\u74e6\u83b2\u4eac\u5a1c\u00b7\u9a6c\u7279\u7ef4\u5ef6\u79d1<\/a><\/td><\/tr>
\u2022 \u56fd\u5bb6\u675c\u9a6c\u4e3b\u5e2d<\/a><\/th>\u7ef4\u4e9a\u5207\u65af\u62c9\u592b\u00b7\u6c83\u6d1b\u91d1<\/a><\/td><\/tr>
\u2022 \u6700\u9ad8\u6cd5\u9662\u9662\u957f<\/a><\/th>\u4f0a\u7433\u5a1c\u00b7\u6ce2\u5fb7\u8bfa\u7d22\u5a03<\/a><\/td><\/tr>
\u2022 \u5baa\u6cd5\u6cd5\u9662\u9662\u957f<\/a><\/th>\u74e6\u5217\u91cc\u00b7\u4f50\u5c14\u91d1<\/a><\/td><\/tr>
\u7acb\u6cd5\u673a\u6784<\/th>\u8054\u90a6\u4f1a\u8bae<\/a><\/td><\/tr>
\u2022 \u4e0a\u8bae\u9662<\/a><\/th>\u8054\u90a6\u59d4\u5458\u4f1a<\/a><\/td><\/tr>
\u2022 \u4e0b\u8bae\u9662<\/a><\/th>\u56fd\u5bb6\u675c\u9a6c<\/a><\/td><\/tr>
\u73b0\u5f79\u519b\u4eba<\/th>1,150,600\u4eba\uff082023\u5e74\uff09\uff08\u7b2c5\u540d<\/a>\uff09<\/td><\/tr>
\u5f62\u6210<\/a><\/th><\/tr>
\u2022 \u57fa\u8f85\u7f57\u65af<\/a>\u5efa\u7acb<\/th>882\u5e74<\/td><\/tr>
\u2022 \u83ab\u65af\u79d1\u5927\u516c\u56fd<\/a>\u6210\u7acb<\/th>1283\u5e74<\/td><\/tr>
\u2022 \u6c99\u7687\u4fc4\u56fd<\/a>\u5efa\u7acb<\/th>1547\u5e741\u670816\u65e5<\/td><\/tr>
\u2022 \u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5e1d\u56fd<\/a>\u6210\u7acb<\/th>1721\u5e7410\u670822\u65e5<\/td><\/tr>
\u2022 \u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5171\u548c\u56fd<\/a>\u6210\u7acb\u82cf\u4fc4<\/a>\u6210\u7acb<\/th>1917\u5e743\u670815\u65e51917\u5e7411\u67087\u65e5<\/td><\/tr>
\u2022 \u82cf\u8054<\/a>\u6210\u7acb<\/th>1922\u5e7412\u670830\u65e5<\/td><\/tr>
\u2022 \u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u8054\u90a6<\/a>\u6210\u7acb<\/th>1991\u5e7412\u670825\u65e5<\/td><\/tr>
\u2022 \u5baa\u6cd5\u751f\u6548<\/a><\/th>1993\u5e7412\u670825\u65e5<\/td><\/tr>
\u9762\u79ef<\/th><\/tr>
\u2022 \u603b\u8ba1<\/th>17,098,246\u5e73\u65b9\u516c\u91cc\uff08\u7b2c1\u540d<\/a>\uff09<\/td><\/tr>
\u2022 \u6c34\u57df\u7387<\/th>13[7]<\/a><\/sup>\uff08\u5305\u62ec\u6cbc\u6cfd\uff09<\/small>%<\/td><\/tr>
\u4eba\u53e3<\/th><\/tr>
\u2022 2025\u5e74\u4f30\u8ba1<\/th>146,150,789[8]<\/a><\/sup>
\uff08\u5305\u62ec\u514b\u91cc\u7c73\u4e9a\uff09\uff08\u7b2c9\u540d<\/a>\uff09<\/td><\/tr>
\u2022 \u5bc6\u5ea6<\/th>8.4\u4eba\/\u5e73\u65b9\u516c\u91cc\uff08\u7b2c181\u540d<\/a>\uff09<\/td><\/tr>
GDP<\/a>\uff08PPP<\/a>\uff09<\/th>2025\u00a0estimate\u30102025\u5e74\u4f30\u8ba1\u503c\u3011<\/td><\/tr>
\u2022 \u603b\u8ba1<\/th>\u2191 $7.192 trillion[15]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0(4th<\/a>)
\u30107.192\u4e07\u4ebf\u7f8e\u5143[15]\uff08\u7b2c4\u4f4d\uff09\u3011<\/td><\/tr>
\u2022 \u4eba\u5747<\/th>\u2191 $49,383[15]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0(43rd<\/a>)
\u301049,383\u7f8e\u5143[15]\uff08\u7b2c43\u4f4d\uff09\u3011<\/td><\/tr>
GDP<\/a>\uff08\u56fd\u9645\u6c47\u7387\uff09<\/th>2025\u00a0estimate\u30102025\u5e74\u4f30\u8ba1\u503c\u3011<\/td><\/tr>
\u2022 \u603b\u8ba1<\/th>\u2193 $2.076 trillion[15]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0(11th<\/a>)
\u30102.076\u4e07\u4ebf\u7f8e\u5143[15]\uff08\u7b2c11\u4f4d\uff09\u3011<\/td><\/tr>
\u2022 \u4eba\u5747<\/th>\u2193 $14,258[15]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0(65th<\/a>)
\u301014,258\u7f8e\u5143[15]\uff08\u7b2c65\u4f4d\uff09\u3011<\/td><\/tr>
\u57fa\u5c3c\u7cfb\u6570<\/a><\/th>\u2193 36.0[16]<\/a><\/sup>\uff082020\uff09
medium inequality\u3010\u4e2d\u7b49\u4e0d\u5e73\u7b49\u3011<\/td><\/tr>
\u4eba\u7c7b\u53d1\u5c55\u6307\u6570<\/a><\/th>\u2191\u00a00.832[17]<\/a><\/sup>
very high\u00a0(64th<\/a>)\u3010\u6781\u9ad8\uff08\u7b2c64\u4f4d\uff09\u3011<\/td><\/tr>
\u8d27\u5e01<\/th>\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5362\u5e03<\/a>\uff08\u20bd\uff09\uff08RUB<\/a>\uff09<\/td><\/tr>
\u65f6\u533a<\/th>UTC<\/a>+2\u81f3+12<\/td><\/tr>
\u65e5\u671f\u683c\u5f0f<\/th>dd.mm.yyyy<\/td><\/tr>
\u2022 \u5386\u6cd5<\/a><\/th>\u5112\u7565\u5386<\/a><\/td><\/tr>
\u884c\u9a76\u65b9\u4f4d<\/a><\/th>\u9760\u53f3<\/td><\/tr>
\u7535\u8bdd\u533a\u53f7<\/th>+7<\/td><\/tr>
ISO 3166\u7801<\/a><\/th>RU<\/a><\/td><\/tr>
\u4e92\u8054\u7f51\u9876\u7ea7\u57df<\/a><\/th>.ru<\/a>\u3001.su<\/a>\u3001.\u0440\u0444<\/a><\/td><\/tr>
\u7f51\u7ad9<\/strong>
gov.ru<\/a> <\/a><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

1. \u540d\u79f0<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

\u8fbd\u89c2\u6ce8\uff1a\u6b64\u6807\u9898\u662f\u6211\u4eec\u5728\u642c\u8fd0\u3001\u6574\u5408\u8fc7\u7a0b\u4e2d\u6dfb\u52a0\u7684\u3002<\/p>\n\n\n\n

1.1 \u8bcd\u6e90 | Etymology<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Main article:\u00a0Names of Rus’, Russia and Ruthenia<\/a>
\u3010\u4e3b\u6761\u76ee\uff1a\u7f57\u65af\uff08Rus’\uff09\u3001\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\uff08Russia\uff09\u4e0e\u9c81\u585e\u5c3c\u4e9a\uff08Ruthenia\uff09\u7684\u540d\u79f0\u3011<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

According to the\u00a0Oxford English Dictionary<\/a><\/em>, the English name\u00a0Russia<\/em>\u00a0first appeared in the 14th century, borrowed from\u00a0Medieval Latin<\/a>:\u00a0Russia<\/em>, used in the 11th century and frequently in 12th-century British sources, in turn derived from\u00a0Russi<\/em>, ‘the Russians’ and the suffix\u00a0-ia<\/a><\/em>.[19]<\/a>[20]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u6839\u636e\u300a\u725b\u6d25\u82f1\u8bed\u8bcd\u5178\u300b\uff08Oxford English Dictionary\uff09\uff0c\u82f1\u6587\u4e2d\u201cRussia\u201d\uff08\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\uff09\u4e00\u8bcd\u6700\u65e9\u51fa\u73b0\u572814\u4e16\u7eaa\uff0c\u5b83\u501f\u81ea\u4e2d\u4e16\u7eaa\u62c9\u4e01\u8bed\u4e2d\u7684\u201cRussia\u201d\uff0c\u8be5\u8bcd\u572811\u4e16\u7eaa\u5df2\u4f7f\u7528\uff0c\u5e76\u9891\u7e41\u51fa\u73b0\u572812\u4e16\u7eaa\u7684\u82f1\u56fd\u8d44\u6599\u4e2d\uff0c\u800c\u201cRussia\u201d\u53c8\u6e90\u81ea\u201cRussi\u201d\uff08\u610f\u4e3a\u201c\u7f57\u65af\u4eba\u201d\u6216\u201c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u4eba\u201d\uff09\u548c\u540e\u7f00\u201c-ia\u201d\u3002[19][20]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

There are several words in Russian which translate to “Russians” in English. The noun and adjective\u00a0\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439,\u00a0russkiy<\/em>\u00a0refers to ethnic\u00a0Russians<\/a>. The adjective\u00a0\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439,\u00a0rossiiskiy<\/em>\u00a0denotes\u00a0Russian citizens<\/a>\u00a0regardless of ethnicity. The same applies to the more recently coined noun\u00a0\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f\u043d\u0438\u043d,\u00a0rossiianyn<\/em>, in the sense of citizen of the Russian state.[21]<\/a>[22]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u4fc4\u8bed\u4e2d\u6709\u51e0\u4e2a\u8bcd\u53ef\u4ee5\u7ffb\u8bd1\u4e3a\u82f1\u6587\u7684\u201cRussians\u201d\uff08\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u4eba\uff09\u3002\u540d\u8bcd\u548c\u5f62\u5bb9\u8bcd\u201c\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\u201d\uff08russkiy\uff09\u6307\u7684\u662f\u65cf\u88d4\u610f\u4e49\u4e0a\u7684\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u4eba<\/strong>\u3002\u5f62\u5bb9\u8bcd\u201c\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\u201d\uff08rossiiskiy\uff09\u5219\u6307\u4e0d\u8bba\u6c11\u65cf\u80cc\u666f\u7684\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u516c\u6c11<\/strong>\u3002\u8fd9\u4e00\u542b\u4e49\u4e5f\u9002\u7528\u4e8e\u8f83\u65b0\u9020\u51fa\u7684\u540d\u8bcd\u201c\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f\u043d\u0438\u043d\u201d\uff08rossiyanin\uff09\uff0c\u5373\u201c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u56fd\u5bb6\u7684\u516c\u6c11\u201d\u3002[21][22]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The oldest\u00a0endonyms<\/a>\u00a0used were\u00a0Rus’<\/em>\u00a0(\u0420\u0443\u0441\u044c) and the “Russian land” (\u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0437\u0435\u043c\u043b\u044f,\u00a0Russkaya zemlya<\/em>).[23]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0According to the\u00a0Primary Chronicle<\/a><\/em>, the word\u00a0Rus’<\/em>\u00a0is derived from the\u00a0Rus’ people<\/a>, who were a\u00a0Swedish<\/a>\u00a0tribe, and from where the three original members of the\u00a0Rurikid<\/a>\u00a0dynasty came from.[24]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The\u00a0Finnish<\/a>\u00a0word for Swedes,\u00a0ruotsi<\/em>, has the same origin.[25]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In modern historiography, the early medieval\u00a0East Slavic<\/a>\u00a0state is usually referred to as\u00a0Kievan Rus’<\/a><\/em>, named after its capital city.[26]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Another Medieval Latin name for\u00a0Rus’<\/em>\u00a0was\u00a0Ruthenia<\/a><\/em>.[27]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u6700\u65e9\u4f7f\u7528\u7684\u672c\u571f\u540d\u79f0\u662f\u201c\u0420\u0443\u0441\u044c\u201d\uff08Rus’\uff0c\u7f57\u65af\uff09\u548c\u201c\u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0437\u0435\u043c\u043b\u044f\u201d\uff08Russkaya zemlya\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u571f\u5730\uff09\u3002[23] \u6839\u636e\u300a\u5f80\u5e74\u7eaa\u4e8b\u300b\uff08Primary Chronicle\uff09\uff0c”Rus'”\uff08\u7f57\u65af\uff09\u8fd9\u4e2a\u8bcd\u6e90\u81ea\u201c\u7f57\u65af\u4eba\u201d\uff0c\u4ed6\u4eec\u662f\u4e00\u4e2a\u745e\u5178\u90e8\u843d\uff0c\u4e5f\u662f\u7559\u91cc\u514b\u738b\u671d\uff08Rurikid dynasty\uff09\u4e09\u4f4d\u6700\u521d\u6210\u5458\u7684\u6765\u6e90\u5730\u3002[24] \u82ac\u5170\u8bed\u4e2d\u201c\u745e\u5178\u4eba\u201d\u7684\u8bf4\u6cd5\u201cruotsi\u201d\u4e5f\u6709\u76f8\u540c\u7684\u8bcd\u6e90\u3002[25] \u5728\u73b0\u4ee3\u5386\u53f2\u5b66\u672f\u8bed\u4e2d\uff0c\u65e9\u671f\u4e2d\u4e16\u7eaa\u7684\u4e1c\u65af\u62c9\u592b\u56fd\u5bb6\u901a\u5e38\u88ab\u79f0\u4e3a\u201c\u57fa\u8f85\u7f57\u65af\u201d\uff08Kievan Rus’\uff09\uff0c\u4ee5\u5176\u9996\u90fd\u57fa\u8f85\u547d\u540d\u3002[26] \u53e6\u4e00\u4e2a\u7528\u4e8e\u201c\u7f57\u65af\u201d\u7684\u4e2d\u4e16\u7eaa\u62c9\u4e01\u8bed\u540d\u79f0\u662f\u201cRuthenia\u201d\uff08\u9c81\u585e\u5c3c\u4e9a\uff09\u3002[27]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In Russian, the current name of the country,\u00a0\u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f\u00a0(Rossiya<\/em>), comes from the\u00a0Byzantine Greek<\/a>\u00a0name\u00a0\u03a1\u03c9\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u00a0(Ros\u00eda<\/em>).[28]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The name\u00a0\u0420\u043e\u0441\u0438\u044f\u00a0(Rosiya<\/em>) was first attested in 1387.[29]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The name\u00a0Rossiya<\/em>\u00a0appeared in Russian sources in the 15th century and began to replace the vernacular\u00a0Rus’<\/em>\u00a0during the rise of Moscow as the centre of a unified Russian state.[30]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0However, until the end of the 17th century, the country was more often referred to by its inhabitants as\u00a0Rus’<\/em>, the “Russian land” (Russkaya zemlya<\/em>), or the “Muscovite state” (Moskovskoye gosudarstvo<\/em>), among other variations.[31]<\/a>[21]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u5728\u4fc4\u8bed\u4e2d\uff0c\u73b0\u4eca\u56fd\u5bb6\u7684\u540d\u79f0\u201c\u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f\u201d\uff08Rossiya\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\uff09\u6e90\u81ea\u62dc\u5360\u5ead\u5e0c\u814a\u8bed\u4e2d\u7684\u201c\u03a1\u03c9\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u201d\uff08Ros\u00eda\uff09\u3002[28] \u201c\u0420\u043e\u0441\u0438\u044f\u201d\uff08Rosiya\uff09\u4e00\u8bcd\u6700\u65e9\u89c1\u4e8e1387\u5e74\u3002[29] \u201c\u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f\u201d\uff08Rossiya\uff09\u51fa\u73b0\u572815\u4e16\u7eaa\u7684\u4fc4\u8bed\u6587\u732e\u4e2d\uff0c\u5e76\u5728\u83ab\u65af\u79d1\u9010\u6e10\u6210\u4e3a\u7edf\u4e00\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u56fd\u5bb6\u4e2d\u5fc3\u7684\u8fc7\u7a0b\u4e2d\u5f00\u59cb\u53d6\u4ee3\u901a\u4fd7\u7528\u8bed\u201c\u0420\u0443\u0441\u044c\u201d\uff08Rus’\uff09\u3002[30] \u7136\u800c\uff0c\u76f4\u523017\u4e16\u7eaa\u672b\uff0c\u5f53\u5730\u4eba\u66f4\u5e38\u79f0\u81ea\u5df1\u7684\u56fd\u5bb6\u4e3a\u201c\u0420\u0443\u0441\u044c\u201d\uff08Rus’\uff09\u3001\u201c\u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0437\u0435\u043c\u043b\u044f\u201d\uff08Russkaya zemlya\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u571f\u5730\uff09\u6216\u201c\u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u201d\uff08Moscovskoye gosudarstvo\uff0c\u83ab\u65af\u79d1\u516c\u56fd\uff09\u7b49\u4e0d\u540c\u79f0\u547c\u3002[31][21]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In 1721,\u00a0Peter the Great<\/a>\u00a0proclaimed the\u00a0Russian Empire<\/a>\u00a0(Rossiyskaya imperiya<\/em>).[31]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The name\u00a0Rossiya<\/em>\u00a0was used as the common designation for the multinational Russian Empire and then for the modern Russian state.[32]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Rossiya<\/em>\u00a0is distinguished from the ethnonym\u00a0russkiy<\/em>, as it refers to a supranational identity, including ethnic Russians.[32]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0After the\u00a0Russian Revolution<\/a>\u00a0and the proclamation of the\u00a0Russian SFSR<\/a>\u00a0in 1918, the “Russian” in the title of the state was\u00a0Rossiyskaya<\/em>, rather than\u00a0Russkaya<\/em>, as the former denoted a multinational state, while the latter had ethnic dimensions.[33]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In modern Russian, the name\u00a0Rus’<\/em>\u00a0is still used in poetry or prose to refer to either the older Russia or an imagined essence of Russia.[26]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u30111721\u5e74\uff0c\u5f7c\u5f97\u5927\u5e1d\u5ba3\u5e03\u6210\u7acb\u201c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5e1d\u56fd\u201d\uff08Rossiyskaya imperiya\uff09\u3002[31] \u4ece\u6b64\uff0c\u201cRossiya\u201d\u8fd9\u4e00\u540d\u79f0\u88ab\u5e7f\u6cdb\u7528\u4e8e\u6307\u4ee3\u591a\u6c11\u65cf\u7684\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5e1d\u56fd\uff0c\u540e\u6765\u4e5f\u7528\u4e8e\u6307\u73b0\u4ee3\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u56fd\u5bb6\u3002[32] \u201cRossiya\u201d\u6709\u522b\u4e8e\u6c11\u65cf\u8bcd\u6c47\u201crusskiy\u201d\uff0c\u56e0\u4e3a\u5b83\u4ee3\u8868\u4e00\u79cd\u8d85\u6c11\u65cf\u7684\u8eab\u4efd\u8ba4\u540c\uff0c\u5305\u542b\u4e86\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u65cf\u548c\u5176\u4ed6\u6c11\u65cf\u3002[32] \u5728\u4fc4\u56fd\u9769\u547d\u4e4b\u540e\uff0c1918\u5e74\u5ba3\u5e03\u6210\u7acb\u7684\u201c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u82cf\u7ef4\u57c3\u793e\u4f1a\u4e3b\u4e49\u5171\u548c\u56fd\u201d\uff08Russian SFSR\uff09\u7684\u56fd\u540d\u4e2d\u4f7f\u7528\u7684\u662f\u201cRossiyskaya\u201d\uff0c\u800c\u975e\u201cRusskaya\u201d\uff0c\u56e0\u4e3a\u524d\u8005\u8868\u793a\u4e00\u4e2a\u591a\u6c11\u65cf\u56fd\u5bb6\uff0c\u800c\u540e\u8005\u5177\u6709\u6c11\u65cf\u5c5e\u6027\u3002[33] \u5728\u73b0\u4ee3\u4fc4\u8bed\u4e2d\uff0c\u201c\u0420\u0443\u0441\u044c\u201d\uff08Rus’\uff09\u4ecd\u5e38\u7528\u4e8e\u8bd7\u6b4c\u6216\u6563\u6587\u4e2d\uff0c\u7528\u6765\u6307\u4ee3\u53e4\u8001\u7684\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u6216\u60f3\u8c61\u4e2d\u7684\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u7cbe\u795e\u672c\u8d28\u3002<\/p>\n\n\n\n

1.2 \u8bd1\u540d\u7531\u6765<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

\u6309\u7167\u4fc4\u8bed\u53d1\u97f3\u201c\u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u044f\u201d\uff0c\u5176\u540d\u79f0\u5e94\u8bd1\u4e3a\u201c\u7f57\u897f\u4e9a<\/strong>\u201d\u3002\u5143\u671d<\/a>\u65f6\u6839\u636e\u8499\u53e4\u8bed<\/a>\u8bd1\u4e3a\u201c\u65a1\u7f57\u601d<\/strong>\u201d[d]<\/a><\/sup>\uff0c\u5230\u6e05\u671d<\/a>\u521d\u5e74\u8bb8\u591a\u6587\u732e\u4e2d\u66fe\u79f0\u4e4b\u4e3a\u201c\u7f57\u5239\u56fd<\/strong>\u201d[e]<\/a><\/sup>\uff0c\u4f46\u5728\u4ee5\u56fd\u5bb6\u76f8\u79f0\u65f6\u5219\u591a\u8bd1\u4e3a\u201c\u9102\u7f57\u65af<\/strong>\u201d[f]<\/a><\/sup>\u6216\u201c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af<\/strong>\u201d\u3002\u4e7e\u9686<\/a>\u5e74\u95f4\u5b98\u4fee\u300a\u56db\u5e93\u5168\u4e66<\/a>\u300b\u65f6\u5c06\u5176\u6b63\u5f0f\u7edf\u4e00\u4e3a\u201c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af<\/strong>\u201d\u6216\u7b80\u79f0\u201c\u4fc4\u56fd<\/strong>\u201d\uff0c\u81ea\u6b64\u6cbf\u7528\u81f3\u4eca\u3002[27]<\/a><\/sup>\u6b64\u5916\uff0c\u540c\u6cbb<\/a>\u5e74\u95f4\u51fa\u7248\u7684\u300a\u65b0\u9057\u8bcf\u5723\u7ecf<\/a>\u300b\u4e2d\u51fa\u73b0\u4e86\u201c\u9fe1\u897f\u4e9a\u201d\u7684\u8bd1\u540d\uff0c\u4ee5\u6c42\u63a5\u8fd1\u4fc4\u8bed\u539f\u59cb\u53d1\u97f3\u3002[g]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u53e6\u4e00\u8bf4\u6cd5\u662f\uff0c\u5728\u6e05\u671d<\/a>\u5165\u4e3b\u4e2d\u539f<\/a>\u65f6\u671f\uff0c\u539f\u5c45\u4e8e\u6b27\u6d32\uff0c\u5c5e\u4e8e\u65af\u62c9\u592b\u4eba<\/a>\u5206\u652f\u7684\u7f57\u65af\u4eba<\/a>\uff0c\u5f00\u59cb\u6a2a\u8d8a\u897f\u4f2f\u5229\u4e9a<\/a>\u4e1c\u6765\u81f3\u9ed1\u9f99\u6c5f<\/a>\u4e0a\u6e38\u4e00\u5e26\uff0c\u51c6\u5907\u5360\u636e\u5f53\u5730\u3002\u7531\u4e8e\u7f57\u65af\u4eba\u62b5\u8fbe\u4e2d\u56fd\u8fb9\u5883\u65f6\uff0c\u6700\u5148\u4e0e\u8499\u53e4\u4eba<\/a>\u4e0e\u8fbe\u65a1\u5c14\u4eba<\/a>\u7b49\u63a5\u89e6\uff0c\u8fd9\u4e9b\u6c11\u65cf\u4e8e\u63d0\u53ca\u4eba\u540d\u6216\u5730\u65b9\u540d\u65f6\uff0c\u60ef\u4e8e\u524d\u9762\u52a0\u4e0a\u201c\u4fc4\u201d\u7684\u53d1\u97f3\uff0c\u4e8e\u662f\u201c\u7f57\u65af\u201d\u5373\u53d8\u4e3a\u201c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u201d\u3002<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u65e5\u672c\u6c49\u5b57<\/a>\u4e0e\u671d\u9c9c\u6c49\u5b57<\/a>\u5219\u5c06\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u79f0\u4e3a\u201c\u9732\u897f\u4e9a<\/strong>\u201d\uff08\u65e5\u8bed\uff1a\u30ed\u30b7\u30a2 roshia *<\/strong><\/a>\/<\/strong><\/small>?<\/strong><\/a><\/small><\/sup>\uff0c\u671d\u9c9c\u8bed\uff1a\ub178\uc11c\uc544 noseoa *<\/strong><\/a>\/<\/strong>?<\/strong><\/a><\/sup>[h]<\/a><\/sup>\uff09\uff0c\u53f0\u6e7e\u7684\u90e8\u5206\u53f0\u8bed<\/a>\u4f7f\u7528\u8005\u4e5f\u6cbf\u7528\u65e5\u6587\u7684\u201c\u9732\u897f\u4e9a<\/strong>\u201d\u79f0\u4e4b\uff0c\u6b64\u8bd1\u540d\u8f83\u4e3a\u63a5\u8fd1\u4fc4\u8bed\u539f\u59cb\u53d1\u97f3\u3002<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u65e7\u65f6\u4e0a\u6d77\u4eba\u5c06\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u8bd1\u4e3a\u201c\u7f57\u5b8b<\/strong>\u201d\uff0c\u56e0\u800c\u6709\u7f57\u5b8b\u6c64<\/a>\u3001\u7f57\u5b8b\u4eba\u3001\u7f57\u5b8b\u9762\u5305\u7b49\u8bcd\u3002[29]<\/a><\/sup>[30]<\/a><\/sup>[31]<\/a><\/sup>[32]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

2. \u5386\u53f2 | History<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Main article:\u00a0History of Russia<\/a>\u3010\u4e3b\u6761\u76ee\uff1a\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5386\u53f2\u3011<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u4e3b\u6761\u76ee\uff1a\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5386\u53f2<\/a>\u3001\u57fa\u8f85\u7f57\u65af<\/a>\u3001\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5e1d\u56fd<\/a>\u3001\u82cf\u8054<\/a>\u548c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u8054\u90a6<\/a><\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u4ece\u56fd\u5bb6\u548c\u56fd\u9645\u6cd5\u5f8b\u7684\u89d2\u5ea6\u6765\u770b\uff0c\u73b0\u4ee3\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u6c11\u65cf\u56fd\u5bb6\u57281917\u5e7411\u67087\u65e5\u51fa\u73b0\u30021991\u5e7412\u670825\u65e5\u66f4\u540d\u4e3a\u201c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u8054\u90a6\u201d\uff0c\u901a\u79f0\u4e3a\u201c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u201d\u3001\u201c\u4fc4\u8054\u90a6\u201d\u6216\u201c\u4fc4\u56fd\u201d\uff0c\u662f\u82cf\u8054<\/a>\u548c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u82cf\u7ef4\u57c3\u8054\u90a6\u793e\u4f1a\u4e3b\u4e49\u5171\u548c\u56fd<\/a>\u7684\u7ee7\u627f\u8005\u3002<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/a><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

2.1 \u65e9\u671f\u5386\u53f2 | Early history<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Further information:\u00a0Ancient Greek colonies<\/a>,\u00a0Early Slavs<\/a>,\u00a0Huns<\/a>,\u00a0Turkic expansion<\/a>, and\u00a0Prehistory of Siberia<\/a>
\u3010\u8fdb\u4e00\u6b65\u4fe1\u606f\uff1a\u53e4\u5e0c\u814a\u6b96\u6c11\u5730\u3001\u65e9\u671f\u65af\u62c9\u592b\u4eba\u3001\u5308\u5974\u3001\u7a81\u53a5\u6269\u5f20\u53ca\u897f\u4f2f\u5229\u4e9a\u7684\u53f2\u524d\u65f6\u671f\u3011<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

See also:\u00a0Proto-Indo-Europeans<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Proto-Uralic homeland<\/a>
\u3010\u53e6\u89c1\uff1a\u539f\u59cb\u5370\u6b27\u4eba\u548c\u539f\u59cb\u4e4c\u62c9\u5c14\u4eba\u6545\u4e61\u3011<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\n
\u56fe1-1\uff08\u53d1\u5e03\u4e8e\u77e5\u4e4e\u60f3\u6cd5\uff09<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

The first human settlement on Russia dates back to the\u00a0Oldowan<\/a>\u00a0period in the early\u00a0Lower Paleolithic<\/a>. About 2 million years ago, representatives of\u00a0Homo erectus<\/a><\/em>\u00a0migrated to the\u00a0Taman Peninsula<\/a>\u00a0in southern Russia.[34]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Flint<\/a>\u00a0tools, some 1.5 million years old, have been discovered in the\u00a0North Caucasus<\/a>.[35]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Radiocarbon dated<\/a>\u00a0specimens from\u00a0Denisova Cave<\/a>\u00a0in the\u00a0Altai Mountains<\/a>\u00a0estimate the oldest\u00a0Denisovan<\/a>\u00a0specimen lived 195\u2013122,700 years ago.[36]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Fossils of\u00a0Denny<\/a><\/em>, an\u00a0archaic human<\/a>\u00a0hybrid that was half\u00a0Neanderthal<\/a>\u00a0and half Denisovan, and lived some 90,000 years ago, was also found within the latter cave.[37]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Russia was home to some of the last surviving Neanderthals, from about 45,000 years ago, found in\u00a0Mezmaiskaya cave<\/a>.[38]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5730\u533a\u6700\u65e9\u7684\u4eba\u7c7b\u5c45\u4f4f\u53ef\u4ee5\u8ffd\u6eaf\u5230\u65e9\u66f4\u65b0\u4e16\u65f6\u671f\u7684\u5965\u5c14\u591a\u4e07\u65f6\u671f\u3002\u5927\u7ea6200\u4e07\u5e74\u524d\uff0c\u76f4\u7acb\u4eba\uff08Homo erectus\uff09\u8fc1\u5f99\u5230\u4e86\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5357\u90e8\u7684\u5854\u66fc\u534a\u5c9b\u3002[34] \u5728\u5317\u9ad8\u52a0\u7d22\u5730\u533a\u53d1\u73b0\u4e86\u7ea6150\u4e07\u5e74\u524d\u7684\u71e7\u77f3\u5de5\u5177\u3002[35] \u5bf9\u963f\u5c14\u6cf0\u5c71\u8109\u4e39\u5c3c\u7d22\u74e6\u6d1e\u7a74\u4e2d\u7684\u6837\u672c\u8fdb\u884c\u653e\u5c04\u6027\u78b3\u6d4b\u5b9a\uff0c\u4f30\u8ba1\u6700\u53e4\u8001\u7684\u4e39\u5c3c\u7d22\u74e6\u4eba\u6837\u672c\u751f\u6d3b\u572819.5\u4e07\u81f312.27\u4e07\u5e74\u524d\u3002[36] \u5728\u540c\u4e00\u6d1e\u7a74\u4e2d\u8fd8\u53d1\u73b0\u4e86\u201cDenny\u201d\u7684\u5316\u77f3\uff0c\u8fd9\u662f\u4e00\u79cd\u53e4\u8001\u4eba\u7c7b\u7684\u6df7\u8840\u513f\uff0c\u4e00\u534a\u662f\u5c3c\u5b89\u5fb7\u7279\u4eba\uff0c\u4e00\u534a\u662f\u4e39\u5c3c\u7d22\u74e6\u4eba\uff0c\u751f\u6d3b\u5728\u5927\u7ea69\u4e07\u5e74\u524d\u3002[37] \u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u4e5f\u662f\u6700\u540e\u4e00\u6279\u5b58\u6d3b\u7684\u5c3c\u5b89\u5fb7\u7279\u4eba\u7684\u5bb6\u56ed\u4e4b\u4e00\uff0c\u5927\u7ea6\u57284.5\u4e07\u5e74\u524d\uff0c\u8fd9\u4e9b\u5c3c\u5b89\u5fb7\u7279\u4eba\u7684\u9057\u9ab8\u5728\u6885\u65e5\u9a6c\u8036\u65af\u5361\u4e9a\u6d1e\u7a74\u88ab\u53d1\u73b0\u3002[38]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The first trace of an\u00a0early modern human<\/a>\u00a0in Russia dates back to 45,000 years, in\u00a0Western Siberia<\/a>.[39]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The discovery of high concentration cultural remains of\u00a0anatomically modern humans<\/a>, from at least 40,000 years ago, was found at\u00a0Kostyonki\u2013Borshchyovo<\/a>,[40]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and at\u00a0Sungir<\/a>, dating back to 34,600 years ago\u2014both in\u00a0western Russia<\/a>.[41]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Humans reached\u00a0Arctic Russia<\/a>\u00a0at least 40,000 years ago, in\u00a0Mamontovaya Kurya<\/a>.[42]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Ancient North Eurasian<\/a>\u00a0populations from Siberia genetically similar to\u00a0Mal’ta\u2013Buret’ culture<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Afontova Gora<\/a>\u00a0were an important genetic contributor to\u00a0Ancient Native Americans<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Eastern Hunter-Gatherers<\/a>.[43]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u5728\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u53d1\u73b0\u7684\u6700\u65e9\u73b0\u4ee3\u4eba\u7c7b\u75d5\u8ff9\u53ef\u8ffd\u6eaf\u81f34.5\u4e07\u5e74\u524d\uff0c\u5730\u70b9\u4f4d\u4e8e\u897f\u4f2f\u5229\u4e9a\u897f\u90e8\u3002[39] \u5728\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u897f\u90e8\u7684\u79d1\u65af\u6258\u76ae\u57fa\u2013\u535a\u5c14\u5e0c\u4e54\u6c83\uff08Kostyonki\u2013Borshchyovo\uff09\u5730\u533a\uff0c\u53d1\u73b0\u4e86\u81f3\u5c11\u8ddd\u4eca4\u4e07\u5e74\u524d\u3001\u6587\u5316\u9057\u8ff9\u9ad8\u5ea6\u96c6\u4e2d\u7684\u89e3\u5256\u5b66\u610f\u4e49\u4e0a\u7684\u73b0\u4ee3\u4eba\u7c7b\u6d3b\u52a8\u75d5\u8ff9\u3002[40] \u6b64\u5916\uff0c\u5728\u8ddd\u4eca\u7ea63.46\u4e07\u5e74\u524d\u7684\u8f9b\u5409\u5c14\uff08Sungir\uff09\u5730\u533a\u4e5f\u53d1\u73b0\u4e86\u7c7b\u4f3c\u7684\u9057\u8ff9\uff0c\u8be5\u5730\u540c\u6837\u4f4d\u4e8e\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u897f\u90e8\u3002[41]\u4eba\u7c7b\u81f3\u5c11\u57284\u4e07\u5e74\u524d\u5c31\u5df2\u5230\u8fbe\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5883\u5185\u7684\u5317\u6781\u5730\u533a\u2014\u2014\u5728\u9a6c\u8499\u6258\u74e6\u4e9a\u00b7\u5e93\u91cc\u4e9a\uff08Mamontovaya Kurya\uff09\u5df2\u53d1\u73b0\u4e86\u5f53\u65f6\u7684\u4eba\u7c7b\u6d3b\u52a8\u8bc1\u636e\u3002[42]\u897f\u4f2f\u5229\u4e9a\u7684\u53e4\u4ee3\u5317\u6b27\u4e9a\u4eba\u7fa4\uff08Ancient North Eurasians\uff09\uff0c\u5728\u57fa\u56e0\u4e0a\u4e0e\u9a6c\u5c14\u5854\u2014\u5e03\u5217\u7279\u6587\u5316\uff08Mal’ta\u2013Buret’ culture\uff09\u548c\u963f\u4e30\u6258\u74e6\u00b7\u6208\u62c9\uff08Afontova Gora\uff09\u4eba\u7fa4\u76f8\u4f3c\uff0c\u662f\u53e4\u4ee3\u7f8e\u6d32\u539f\u4f4f\u6c11\uff08Ancient Native Americans\uff09\u548c\u4e1c\u90e8\u72e9\u730e\u91c7\u96c6\u8005\uff08Eastern Hunter-Gatherers\uff09\u7684\u91cd\u8981\u9057\u4f20\u8d21\u732e\u8005\u3002[43]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The\u00a0Kurgan hypothesis<\/a>\u00a0places the Volga-Dnieper region of southern Russia and\u00a0Ukraine<\/a>\u00a0as the\u00a0urheimat<\/a>\u00a0of the\u00a0Proto-Indo-Europeans<\/a>.[45]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Early\u00a0Indo-European migrations<\/a>\u00a0from the\u00a0Pontic\u2013Caspian steppe<\/a>\u00a0of Ukraine and Russia spread\u00a0Yamnaya<\/a>\u00a0ancestry and\u00a0Indo-European languages<\/a>\u00a0across large parts of Eurasia.[46]<\/a>[47]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Nomadic pastoralism<\/a>\u00a0developed in the Pontic\u2013Caspian steppe beginning in the\u00a0Chalcolithic<\/a>.[48]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Remnants of these steppe civilisations were discovered in places such as\u00a0Ipatovo<\/a>,[48]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Sintashta<\/a>,[49]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Arkaim<\/a>,[50]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and\u00a0Pazyryk<\/a>,[51]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0which bear the earliest known traces of\u00a0horses in warfare<\/a>.[49]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The genetic makeup of speakers of the\u00a0Uralic<\/a>\u00a0language family in northern Europe was shaped by migration from\u00a0Siberia<\/a>\u00a0that began at least 3,500 years ago.[52]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u5e93\u5c14\u5e72\u5047\u8bf4\uff08Kurgan hypothesis\uff09\u8ba4\u4e3a\uff0c\u539f\u59cb\u5370\u6b27\u4eba\u7684\u8d77\u6e90\u5730\uff08urheimat\uff09\u4f4d\u4e8e\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u548c\u4e4c\u514b\u5170\u5357\u90e8\u7684\u4f0f\u5c14\u52a0\u6cb3\u2014\u7b2c\u8042\u4f2f\u6cb3\u6d41\u57df\u5730\u533a\u3002[45] \u65e9\u671f\u5370\u6b27\u4eba\u4ece\u4e4c\u514b\u5170\u548c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5883\u5185\u7684\u5e9e\u8482\u514b\u2014\u91cc\u6d77\u8349\u539f\u8fc1\u5f99\u800c\u51fa\uff0c\u5c06\u4e9a\u59c6\u7eb3\u6587\u5316\u4eba\u7fa4\u7684\u8840\u7edf\u548c\u5370\u6b27\u8bed\u7cfb\u4f20\u64ad\u5230\u6b27\u4e9a\u5927\u9646\u7684\u5e7f\u5927\u5730\u533a\u3002[46][47] \u6e38\u7267\u755c\u7267\u4e1a\u6700\u65e9\u5728\u94dc\u77f3\u5e76\u7528\u65f6\u4ee3\uff08Chalcolithic\uff09\u8d77\u6e90\u4e8e\u5e9e\u8482\u514b\u2014\u91cc\u6d77\u8349\u539f\u5730\u533a\u3002[48] \u8fd9\u4e9b\u8349\u539f\u6587\u660e\u7684\u9057\u8ff9\u5728\u4f0a\u5e15\u6258\u6c83\uff08Ipatovo\uff09\u3001\u8f9b\u5854\u4ec0\u5854\uff08Sintashta\uff09\u3001\u963f\u5361\u4f0a\u59c6\uff08Arkaim\uff09\u548c\u5e15\u5179\u96f7\u514b\uff08Pazyryk\uff09\u7b49\u5730\u88ab\u53d1\u73b0\uff0c\u8fd9\u4e9b\u9057\u5740\u4e2d\u4fdd\u7559\u7740\u76ee\u524d\u5df2\u77e5\u6700\u65e9\u7684\u6218\u9a6c\u4f7f\u7528\u75d5\u8ff9\u3002[49]\u5317\u6b27\u4e4c\u62c9\u5c14\u8bed\u7cfb\u65cf\u7fa4\u7684\u57fa\u56e0\u6784\u6210\u53d7\u5230\u4e86\u6765\u81ea\u897f\u4f2f\u5229\u4e9a\u7684\u8fc1\u5f99\u4eba\u53e3\u7684\u5f71\u54cd\uff0c\u8fd9\u4e00\u8fc1\u5f99\u81f3\u5c11\u59cb\u4e8e3500\u5e74\u524d\u3002[52]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In the 3rd to 4th centuries CE, the\u00a0Gothic<\/a>\u00a0kingdom of\u00a0Oium<\/a>\u00a0existed in southern Russia, which was later overrun by\u00a0Huns<\/a>. Between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE, the\u00a0Bosporan Kingdom<\/a>, which was a Hellenistic\u00a0polity<\/a>\u00a0that succeeded the Greek colonies,[53]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0was also overwhelmed by nomadic invasions led by warlike tribes such as the Huns and\u00a0Eurasian Avars<\/a>.[54]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The\u00a0Khazars<\/a>, who were of\u00a0Turkic origin<\/a>, ruled the steppes between the Caucasus in the south, to the east past the Volga river basin, and west as far as Kyiv on the Dnieper river until the 10th century.[55]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0After them came the\u00a0Pechenegs<\/a>\u00a0who created a large confederacy, which was subsequently taken over by the\u00a0Cumans<\/a>\u00a0and the\u00a0Kipchaks<\/a>.[56]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u516c\u51433\u81f34\u4e16\u7eaa\uff0c\u54e5\u7279\u4eba\u7684\u5965\u4f0a\u4e4c\u59c6\u738b\u56fd\uff08Oium\uff09\u66fe\u5b58\u5728\u4e8e\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5357\u90e8\uff0c\u540e\u6765\u88ab\u5308\u5974\u4eba\u5f81\u670d\u3002\u516c\u51433\u81f36\u4e16\u7eaa\u671f\u95f4\uff0c\u7ee7\u5e0c\u814a\u6b96\u6c11\u5730\u4e4b\u540e\u5efa\u7acb\u7684\u535a\u65af\u666e\u9c81\u65af\u738b\u56fd\uff08Bosporan Kingdom\uff09\uff0c\u4e00\u4e2a\u5177\u6709\u5e0c\u814a\u5316\u7279\u5f81\u7684\u653f\u6cbb\u5b9e\u4f53\uff0c\u4e5f\u906d\u5230\u5308\u5974\u548c\u6b27\u4e9a\u963f\u74e6\u5c14\u7b49\u597d\u6218\u90e8\u843d\u9886\u5bfc\u7684\u6e38\u7267\u5165\u4fb5\u800c\u8986\u706d\u3002[54]\u53ef\u8428\u4eba\uff08Khazars\uff09\u662f\u7a81\u53a5\u6c11\u65cf\u7684\u4e00\u652f\uff0c\u4ed6\u4eec\u572810\u4e16\u7eaa\u4ee5\u524d\u7edf\u6cbb\u7740\u4ece\u5357\u90e8\u9ad8\u52a0\u7d22\u5730\u533a\u5411\u4e1c\u5ef6\u4f38\u81f3\u4f0f\u6cb3\u6d41\u57df\u3001\u5411\u897f\u8fbe\u7b2c\u8042\u4f2f\u6cb3\u6cbf\u5cb8\u57fa\u8f85\u7684\u5927\u7247\u8349\u539f\u5730\u5e26\u3002[55] \u6b64\u540e\uff0c\u4f69\u5207\u6d85\u683c\u4eba\uff08Pechenegs\uff09\u5efa\u7acb\u8d77\u4e00\u4e2a\u5e9e\u5927\u7684\u8054\u76df\u4f53\u7cfb\uff0c\u968f\u540e\u88ab\u5e93\u66fc\u4eba\uff08Cumans\uff09\u548c\u94a6\u5bdf\u4eba\uff08Kipchaks\uff09\u6240\u53d6\u4ee3\u3002[56]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The ancestors of\u00a0Russians<\/a>\u00a0are among the\u00a0Slavic tribes<\/a>\u00a0that separated from the Proto-Indo-Europeans, who appeared in the northeastern part of Europe\u00a0c.\u20091500\u202fyears ago.[57]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The East Slavs gradually settled western Russia (approximately between modern\u00a0Moscow<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Saint-Petersburg<\/a>) in two waves: one moving from\u00a0Kiev<\/a>\u00a0towards present-day\u00a0Suzdal<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Murom<\/a>\u00a0and another from\u00a0Polotsk<\/a>\u00a0towards\u00a0Novgorod<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Rostov<\/a>.[58]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Prior to Slavic migration, that territory was populated by\u00a0Finno-Ugrian<\/a>\u00a0peoples. From the 7th century onwards, the incoming East Slavs slowly assimilated the native Finno-Ugrians.[59]<\/a>[60]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u4eba\u7684\u7956\u5148\u5c5e\u4e8e\u90a3\u4e9b\u4ece\u539f\u59cb\u5370\u6b27\u4eba\u4e2d\u5206\u79bb\u51fa\u6765\u7684\u65af\u62c9\u592b\u90e8\u843d\uff0c\u8fd9\u4e9b\u90e8\u843d\u5927\u7ea6\u57281500\u5e74\u524d\u51fa\u73b0\u5728\u6b27\u6d32\u4e1c\u5317\u90e8\u3002[57] \u4e1c\u65af\u62c9\u592b\u4eba\u9010\u6e10\u5206\u4e24\u6ce2\u8fc1\u5165\u4eca\u65e5\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u897f\u90e8\u5730\u533a\uff08\u5927\u81f4\u4f4d\u4e8e\u73b0\u4ee3\u83ab\u65af\u79d1\u4e0e\u5723\u5f7c\u5f97\u5821\u4e4b\u95f4\uff09\uff1a\u4e00\u6ce2\u4ece\u57fa\u8f85\u51fa\u53d1\u5411\u4e1c\u8fdb\u5165\u82cf\u5179\u8fbe\u5c14\uff08Suzdal\uff09\u548c\u7a46\u7f57\u59c6\uff08Murom\uff09\uff0c\u53e6\u4e00\u6ce2\u5219\u4ece\u6ce2\u6d1b\u8328\u514b\uff08Polotsk\uff09\u51fa\u53d1\u524d\u5f80\u8bfa\u592b\u54e5\u7f57\u5fb7\uff08Novgorod\uff09\u548c\u7f57\u65af\u6258\u592b\uff08Rostov\uff09\u3002[58] \u5728\u65af\u62c9\u592b\u4eba\u8fc1\u5165\u4e4b\u524d\uff0c\u8be5\u5730\u533a\u5c45\u4f4f\u7684\u662f\u82ac\u5170\u2014\u4e4c\u6208\u5c14\u8bed\u65cf\u4eba\u7fa4\u3002\u81ea7\u4e16\u7eaa\u8d77\uff0c\u9646\u7eed\u8fc1\u5165\u7684\u4e1c\u65af\u62c9\u592b\u4eba\u5f00\u59cb\u9010\u6b65\u540c\u5316\u5f53\u5730\u7684\u571f\u8457\u5c45\u6c11\u3002[59][60]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

2.2 \u57fa\u8f85\u7f57\u65af | Kievan Rus’<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Main articles:\u00a0Rus’ Khaganate<\/a>;\u00a0Kievan Rus’<\/a>; and\u00a0List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine<\/a>
\u3010\u4e3b\u6761\u76ee\uff1a\u7f57\u65af\u53ef\u8428\u6c57\u56fd\uff1b\u57fa\u8f85\u7f57\u65af\uff1b\u4ee5\u53ca\u767d\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u3001\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u548c\u4e4c\u514b\u5170\u7684\u90e8\u843d\u4e0e\u56fd\u5bb6\u5217\u8868\u3011<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\n
\u56fe1-2\uff08\u53d1\u5e03\u4e8e\u77e5\u4e4e\u60f3\u6cd5\uff09<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

The establishment of the first East Slavic states in the 9th century coincided with the arrival of\u00a0Varangians<\/a>, the\u00a0Vikings<\/a>\u00a0who ventured along the waterways extending from the eastern Baltic\u00a0to the Black<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Caspian<\/a>\u00a0Seas.[59]<\/a>[61]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0According to the\u00a0Primary Chronicle<\/a><\/em>, a Varangian from the\u00a0Rus’ people<\/a>, named\u00a0Rurik<\/a>, was elected ruler of\u00a0Novgorod<\/a>\u00a0in 862. In 882, his successor\u00a0Oleg<\/a>\u00a0ventured south and conquered\u00a0Kiev<\/a>, which had been previously paying tribute to the\u00a0Khazars<\/a>.[59]<\/a>[61]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Rurik’s son\u00a0Igor<\/a>\u00a0and Igor’s son\u00a0Sviatoslav<\/a>\u00a0subsequently subdued all local\u00a0East Slavic<\/a>\u00a0tribes to Kievan rule, destroyed the Khazar Khaganate,[62]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and launched several military expeditions to\u00a0Bulgaria<\/a>,\u00a0Byzantium<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Persia<\/a>.[63]<\/a>[64]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u30119\u4e16\u7eaa\uff0c\u7b2c\u4e00\u4e2a\u4e1c\u65af\u62c9\u592b\u56fd\u5bb6\u7684\u5efa\u7acb\u6070\u9022\u74e6\u826f\u683c\u4eba\uff08Varangians\uff09\u7684\u5230\u6765\u3002\u8fd9\u4e9b\u74e6\u826f\u683c\u4eba\u5c31\u662f\u7ef4\u4eac\u4eba\uff0c\u4ed6\u4eec\u6cbf\u7740\u4ece\u4e1c\u6ce2\u7f57\u7684\u6d77\u901a\u5f80\u9ed1\u6d77\u548c\u91cc\u6d77\u7684\u6c34\u8def\u822a\u884c\u800c\u6765\u3002[59][61] \u6839\u636e\u300a\u5f80\u5e74\u7eaa\u4e8b\u300b\uff08Primary Chronicle\uff09\uff0c\u4e00\u4f4d\u5c5e\u4e8e\u7f57\u65af\u4eba\uff08Rus’\uff09\u90e8\u843d\u7684\u74e6\u826f\u683c\u4eba\u540d\u53eb\u7559\u91cc\u514b\uff08Rurik\uff09\uff0c\u4e8e\u516c\u5143862\u5e74\u88ab\u63a8\u4e3e\u4e3a\u8bfa\u592b\u54e5\u7f57\u5fb7\uff08Novgorod\uff09\u7684\u7edf\u6cbb\u8005\u3002\u516c\u5143882\u5e74\uff0c\u4ed6\u7684\u7ee7\u4efb\u8005\u5965\u5217\u683c\uff08Oleg\uff09\u5357\u4e0b\u5f81\u670d\u4e86\u57fa\u8f85\uff08Kiev\uff09\uff0c\u800c\u57fa\u8f85\u6b64\u524d\u66fe\u5411\u53ef\u8428\u6c57\u56fd\uff08Khazar Khaganate\uff09\u7eb3\u8d21\u3002[59][61] \u7559\u91cc\u514b\u7684\u513f\u5b50\u4f0a\u6208\u5c14\uff08Igor\uff09\u53ca\u5176\u5b59\u5b50\u65af\u7ef4\u4e9a\u6258\u65af\u62c9\u592b\uff08Sviatoslav\uff09\u968f\u540e\u5f81\u670d\u4e86\u6240\u6709\u5f53\u5730\u7684\u4e1c\u65af\u62c9\u592b\u90e8\u843d\uff0c\u7edf\u4e00\u4e86\u57fa\u8f85\u7f57\u65af\u5730\u533a\uff0c\u6467\u6bc1\u4e86\u53ef\u8428\u6c57\u56fd\uff0c[62] \u5e76\u591a\u6b21\u51fa\u5175\u8fdc\u5f81\u4fdd\u52a0\u5229\u4e9a\u3001\u62dc\u5360\u5ead\u548c\u6ce2\u65af\u3002[63][64]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In the 10th to 11th centuries, Kievan Rus’ became one of the largest and most prosperous states in Europe. The reigns of\u00a0Vladimir the Great<\/a>\u00a0(980\u20131015) and his son\u00a0Yaroslav the Wise<\/a>\u00a0(1019\u20131054) constitute the\u00a0Golden Age<\/a>\u00a0of Kiev, which saw\u00a0the acceptance of<\/a>\u00a0Orthodox Christianity from\u00a0Byzantium<\/a>, and the creation of the first East Slavic written\u00a0legal code<\/a>, the\u00a0Russkaya Pravda<\/a><\/em>.[59]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The age of\u00a0feudalism<\/a>\u00a0and decentralisation had come, marked by constant in-fighting between members of the\u00a0Rurik dynasty<\/a>\u00a0that ruled Kievan Rus’ collectively. Kiev’s dominance waned, to the benefit of\u00a0Vladimir-Suzdal<\/a>\u00a0in the north-east, the\u00a0Novgorod Republic<\/a>\u00a0in the north, and\u00a0Galicia-Volhynia<\/a>\u00a0in the south-west.[59]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0By the 12th century, Kiev lost its pre-eminence and Kievan Rus’ had fragmented into different principalities.[65]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Prince\u00a0Andrey Bogolyubsky<\/a>\u00a0sacked Kiev in 1169 and made\u00a0Vladimir<\/a>\u00a0his base,[65]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0leading to political power being shifted to the north-east.[59]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u572810\u81f311\u4e16\u7eaa\u671f\u95f4\uff0c\u57fa\u8f85\u7f57\u65af\u6210\u4e3a\u6b27\u6d32\u6700\u5927\u3001\u6700\u7e41\u8363\u7684\u56fd\u5bb6\u4e4b\u4e00\u3002\u5f17\u62c9\u57fa\u7c73\u5c14\u5927\u5e1d\uff08Vladimir the Great\uff0c980\u20131015\u5e74\u5728\u4f4d\uff09\u548c\u4ed6\u7684\u513f\u5b50\u667a\u8005\u96c5\u7f57\u65af\u62c9\u592b\uff08Yaroslav the Wise\uff0c1019\u20131054\u5e74\u5728\u4f4d\uff09\u7edf\u6cbb\u65f6\u671f\u88ab\u79f0\u4e3a\u57fa\u8f85\u7684\u9ec4\u91d1\u65f6\u4ee3\u3002\u5728\u6b64\u671f\u95f4\uff0c\u7f57\u65af\u63a5\u53d7\u4e86\u6765\u81ea\u62dc\u5360\u5ead\u7684\u4e1c\u6b63\u6559\u57fa\u7763\u6559\uff0c\u5e76\u5236\u5b9a\u4e86\u7b2c\u4e00\u90e8\u4e1c\u65af\u62c9\u592b\u6587\u5b57\u6cd5\u5f8b\u2014\u2014\u300a\u7f57\u65af\u6cd5\u5178\u300b\uff08Russkaya Pravda\uff09\u3002[59]\u968f\u7740\u5c01\u5efa\u5236\u5ea6\u7684\u53d1\u5c55\uff0c\u57fa\u8f85\u7f57\u65af\u8fdb\u5165\u4e86\u4e00\u4e2a\u6743\u529b\u5206\u6563\u7684\u65f6\u4ee3\uff0c\u8868\u73b0\u4e3a\u7559\u91cc\u514b\u738b\u671d\u5404\u6210\u5458\u4e4b\u95f4\u7684\u6301\u7eed\u5185\u6597\u3002\u57fa\u8f85\u7684\u4e3b\u5bfc\u5730\u4f4d\u9010\u6e10\u524a\u5f31\uff0c\u4e1c\u5317\u90e8\u7684\u5f17\u62c9\u57fa\u7c73\u5c14\u2014\u82cf\u5179\u8fbe\u5c14\u516c\u56fd\uff08Vladimir-Suzdal\uff09\u3001\u5317\u90e8\u7684\u8bfa\u592b\u54e5\u7f57\u5fb7\u5171\u548c\u56fd\uff08Novgorod Republic\uff09\u4ee5\u53ca\u897f\u5357\u90e8\u7684\u52a0\u5229\u897f\u4e9a\u2014\u6c83\u91cc\u5c3c\u4e9a\u516c\u56fd\uff08Galicia-Volhynia\uff09\u76f8\u7ee7\u5d1b\u8d77\u3002[59] \u523012\u4e16\u7eaa\u65f6\uff0c\u57fa\u8f85\u5df2\u5931\u53bb\u5176\u9886\u5148\u5730\u4f4d\uff0c\u57fa\u8f85\u7f57\u65af\u5206\u88c2\u4e3a\u591a\u4e2a\u72ec\u7acb\u7684\u516c\u56fd\u3002[65] 1169\u5e74\uff0c\u5b89\u5fb7\u70c8\u00b7\u535a\u6208\u67f3\u5e03\u65af\u57fa\uff08Andrey Bogolyubsky\uff09\u653b\u9677\u57fa\u8f85\uff0c\u5e76\u5c06\u7edf\u6cbb\u4e2d\u5fc3\u8bbe\u5728\u5f17\u62c9\u57fa\u7c73\u5c14\uff0c\u6807\u5fd7\u7740\u653f\u6cbb\u91cd\u5fc3\u5411\u4e1c\u5317\u8f6c\u79fb\u3002[65]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Led by Prince\u00a0Alexander Nevsky<\/a>, Novgorodians repelled the invading\u00a0Swedes<\/a>\u00a0in the\u00a0Battle of the Neva<\/a>\u00a0in 1240,[66]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0as well as the\u00a0Germanic crusaders<\/a>\u00a0in the\u00a0Battle on the Ice<\/a>\u00a0in 1242.[67]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u5728\u4e9a\u5386\u5c71\u5927\u00b7\u6d85\u592b\u65af\u57fa\u738b\u5b50\uff08Alexander Nevsky\uff09\u7684\u9886\u5bfc\u4e0b\uff0c\u8bfa\u592b\u54e5\u7f57\u5fb7\u4eba\u57281240\u5e74\u7684\u6d85\u74e6\u6cb3\u6218\u5f79\u4e2d\u51fb\u9000\u4e86\u5165\u4fb5\u7684\u745e\u5178\u519b\u961f\uff0c[66] \u53c8\u57281242\u5e74\u7684\u51b0\u4e0a\u4e4b\u6218\u4e2d\u51fb\u8d25\u4e86\u65e5\u8033\u66fc\u5341\u5b57\u519b\u3002[67]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Kievan Rus’ finally fell to the\u00a0Mongol invasion<\/a>\u00a0of 1237\u20131240, which resulted in the\u00a0sacking of Kiev<\/a>\u00a0and other cities, as well as the death of a major part of the population.[59]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The invaders, later known as\u00a0Tatars<\/a>, formed the state of the\u00a0Golden Horde<\/a>, which ruled over Russia for the next two centuries.[68]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Only the Novgorod Republic escaped foreign occupation after it agreed to pay tribute to the Mongols.[59]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Galicia-Volhynia would later be absorbed by\u00a0Lithuania<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Poland<\/a>, while the Novgorod Republic continued to prosper in the north. In the northeast, the Byzantine-Slavic traditions of Kievan Rus’ were adapted to form the Russian autocratic state.[59]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u6700\u7ec8\uff0c\u57fa\u8f85\u7f57\u65af\u57281237\u5e74\u81f31240\u5e74\u95f4\u906d\u5230\u8499\u53e4\u4eba\u7684\u5165\u4fb5\u800c\u706d\u4ea1\u3002\u8fd9\u573a\u5165\u4fb5\u5bfc\u81f4\u57fa\u8f85\u548c\u5176\u4ed6\u57ce\u5e02\u88ab\u6d17\u52ab\uff0c\u5927\u91cf\u4eba\u53e3\u6b7b\u4ea1\u3002[59] \u5165\u4fb5\u8005\u540e\u6765\u88ab\u79f0\u4e3a\u9791\u977c\u4eba\uff0c\u4ed6\u4eec\u5efa\u7acb\u4e86\u91d1\u5e10\u6c57\u56fd\uff08Golden Horde\uff09\uff0c\u5e76\u5728\u63a5\u4e0b\u6765\u7684\u4e24\u4e2a\u4e16\u7eaa\u4e2d\u7edf\u6cbb\u4e86\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5927\u90e8\u5206\u5730\u533a\u3002[68] \u552f\u4e00\u672a\u88ab\u5360\u9886\u7684\u662f\u8bfa\u592b\u54e5\u7f57\u5fb7\u5171\u548c\u56fd\uff0c\u5b83\u901a\u8fc7\u5411\u8499\u53e4\u4eba\u7f34\u7eb3\u8d21\u8d4b\u800c\u5f97\u4ee5\u4fdd\u6301\u72ec\u7acb\u3002[59] \u52a0\u5229\u897f\u4e9a\u2014\u6c83\u91cc\u5c3c\u4e9a\u540e\u6765\u88ab\u7acb\u9676\u5b9b\u548c\u6ce2\u5170\u541e\u5e76\uff0c\u800c\u8bfa\u592b\u54e5\u7f57\u5fb7\u5171\u548c\u56fd\u5219\u5728\u5317\u65b9\u7ee7\u7eed\u7e41\u8363\u53d1\u5c55\u3002\u5728\u4e1c\u5317\u5730\u533a\uff0c\u57fa\u8f85\u7f57\u65af\u6240\u4f20\u627f\u7684\u62dc\u5360\u5ead\u2014\u65af\u62c9\u592b\u4f20\u7edf\u88ab\u5438\u6536\u878d\u5408\uff0c\u5f62\u6210\u4e86\u540e\u6765\u7684\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u4e13\u5236\u56fd\u5bb6\u3002[59]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

2.3 \u83ab\u65af\u79d1\u5927\u516c\u56fd | Grand Principality of Moscow<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Main article:\u00a0Grand Principality of Moscow<\/a>\u3010\u4e3b\u6761\u76ee\uff1a\u83ab\u65af\u79d1\u5927\u516c\u56fd\u3011<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\n
\u56fe1-3\uff08\u53d1\u5e03\u4e8e\u77e5\u4e4e\u60f3\u6cd5\uff09<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

The destruction of Kievan Rus’ saw the eventual rise of the\u00a0Grand Principality of Moscow<\/a>, initially a part of\u00a0Vladimir-Suzdal<\/a>.[59]<\/a>:\u200a11\u201320\u200a<\/sup>\u00a0While still under the domain of the\u00a0Mongol<\/a>–Tatars<\/a>\u00a0and with their connivance, Moscow began to assert its influence in the region in the early 14th century,[69]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0gradually becoming the leading force in the “gathering of the Russian lands”.[59]<\/a>[70]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0When the seat of the Metropolitan of the\u00a0Russian Orthodox Church<\/a>\u00a0moved to Moscow in 1325, its influence increased.[71]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Moscow’s last rival, the\u00a0Novgorod Republic<\/a>, prospered as the chief\u00a0fur trade<\/a>\u00a0centre and the easternmost port of the\u00a0Hanseatic League<\/a>.[72]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u968f\u7740\u57fa\u8f85\u7f57\u65af\u7684\u74e6\u89e3\uff0c\u83ab\u65af\u79d1\u5927\u516c\u56fd\u9010\u6e10\u5d1b\u8d77\uff0c\u6700\u521d\u5b83\u662f\u5f17\u62c9\u57fa\u7c73\u5c14\u2014\u82cf\u5179\u8fbe\u5c14\u516c\u56fd\u7684\u4e00\u90e8\u5206\u3002[59]:\u200a11\u201320\u200a \u5c3d\u7ba1\u4ecd\u5904\u4e8e\u8499\u53e4\u2014\u9791\u977c\u7edf\u6cbb\u4e4b\u4e0b\uff0c\u5e76\u5728\u4ed6\u4eec\u7684\u9ed8\u8bb8\u4e0b\uff0c\u83ab\u65af\u79d1\u572814\u4e16\u7eaa\u521d\u5f00\u59cb\u5728\u5730\u533a\u4e8b\u52a1\u4e2d\u53d1\u6325\u5f71\u54cd\u529b\uff0c[69] \u5e76\u9010\u6b65\u6210\u4e3a\u201c\u6536\u590d\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u571f\u5730\u201d\u8fd0\u52a8\u4e2d\u7684\u9886\u5bfc\u529b\u91cf\u3002[59][70] 1325\u5e74\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u4e1c\u6b63\u6559\u5927\u4e3b\u6559\u7684\u9a7b\u5730\u8fc1\u81f3\u83ab\u65af\u79d1\uff0c\u8fdb\u4e00\u6b65\u63d0\u5347\u4e86\u83ab\u65af\u79d1\u7684\u5730\u4f4d\u3002[71] \u83ab\u65af\u79d1\u6700\u540e\u7684\u4e3b\u8981\u5bf9\u624b\u662f\u7e41\u8363\u7684\u8bfa\u592b\u54e5\u7f57\u5fb7\u5171\u548c\u56fd\uff0c\u5b83\u4f5c\u4e3a\u4e3b\u8981\u7684\u6bdb\u76ae\u8d38\u6613\u4e2d\u5fc3\uff0c\u4ee5\u53ca\u6c49\u8428\u540c\u76df\uff08Hanseatic League\uff09\u6700\u4e1c\u90e8\u7684\u6e2f\u53e3\u57ce\u5e02\u800c\u5174\u76db\u3002[72]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Led by Prince\u00a0Dmitry Donskoy<\/a>\u00a0of Moscow, the united army of Russian principalities inflicted\u00a0a milestone defeat<\/a>\u00a0on the Mongol-Tatars in the\u00a0Battle of Kulikovo<\/a>\u00a0in 1380.[59]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Moscow gradually absorbed its parent duchy and surrounding principalities, including formerly strong rivals such as\u00a0Tver<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Novgorod<\/a>.[59]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u30111380\u5e74\uff0c\u5728\u83ab\u65af\u79d1\u5927\u516c\u5fb7\u7c73\u7279\u91cc\u00b7\u987f\u65af\u79d1\u4f0a\uff08Dmitry Donskoy\uff09\u7684\u9886\u5bfc\u4e0b\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5404\u516c\u56fd\u8054\u519b\u5728\u5e93\u5229\u79d1\u6c83\u6218\u5f79<\/strong>\uff08Battle of Kulikovo\uff09\u4e2d\u5bf9\u8499\u53e4\u2014\u9791\u977c\u519b\u961f\u53d6\u5f97\u5177\u6709\u91cc\u7a0b\u7891\u610f\u4e49\u7684\u80dc\u5229\u3002[59] \u6b64\u540e\uff0c\u83ab\u65af\u79d1\u9010\u6b65\u541e\u5e76\u4e86\u5176\u6bcd\u516c\u56fd\u53ca\u5468\u8fb9\u5176\u4ed6\u516c\u56fd\uff0c\u5305\u62ec\u6b64\u524d\u5b9e\u529b\u5f3a\u5927\u7684\u56fe\u62c9\uff08Tver\uff09\u548c\u8bfa\u592b\u54e5\u7f57\u5fb7\u7b49\u7ade\u4e89\u5bf9\u624b\u3002[59]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ivan III<\/a>\u00a0(“the Great”) threw off the control of the\u00a0Golden Horde<\/a>\u00a0and gained sovereignty over the ethnically Russian lands;[59]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0he later adopted the title of\u00a0sovereign of all Russia<\/a>.[73]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0After the\u00a0fall of Constantinople<\/a>\u00a0in 1453, Moscow\u00a0claimed succession to the legacy<\/a>\u00a0of the\u00a0Eastern Roman Empire<\/a>. Ivan\u00a0III married\u00a0Sophia Palaiologina<\/a>, the niece of the last\u00a0Byzantine emperor<\/a>\u00a0Constantine\u00a0XI<\/a>, and made the Byzantine\u00a0double-headed eagle<\/a>\u00a0his own, and eventually Russia’s, coat-of-arms.[59]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Vasili III<\/a>\u00a0united all of Russia by annexing the last few independent\u00a0Russian states<\/a>\u00a0in the early 16th century.[74]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u4f0a\u51e1\u4e09\u4e16<\/strong>\uff08\u201c\u4f0a\u51e1\u5927\u5e1d\u201d\uff09\u6446\u8131\u4e86\u91d1\u5e10\u6c57\u56fd\u7684\u63a7\u5236\uff0c\u5b9e\u73b0\u4e86\u5bf9\u5927\u90e8\u5206\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u6c11\u65cf\u805a\u5c45\u5730\u533a\u7684\u7edf\u4e00\uff0c\u5e76\u81ea\u79f0\u201c\u5168\u7f57\u65af\u541b\u4e3b\u201d\u3002[59] \u4ed6\u540e\u6765\u91c7\u7528\u4e86\u201c\u5168\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u541b\u4e3b\u201d\u7684\u79f0\u53f7\u3002[73] 1453\u5e74\u541b\u58eb\u5766\u4e01\u5821\u9677\u843d\u540e\uff0c\u83ab\u65af\u79d1\u5ba3\u79f0\u7ee7\u627f\u4e1c\u7f57\u9a6c\u5e1d\u56fd\uff08\u62dc\u5360\u5ead\u5e1d\u56fd\uff09\u7684\u9057\u4ea7\u3002\u4f0a\u51e1\u4e09\u4e16\u8fce\u5a36\u4e86\u6700\u540e\u4e00\u4f4d\u62dc\u5360\u5ead\u7687\u5e1d\u541b\u58eb\u5766\u4e01\u5341\u4e00\u4e16\u7684\u4f84\u5973\u7d22\u83f2\u4e9a\u00b7\u5e15\u91cc\u5965\u6d1b\u52a0\uff08Sophia Palaiologina\uff09\uff0c\u5e76\u5c06\u62dc\u5360\u5ead\u7684\u53cc\u5934\u9e70\u6807\u5fd7\u4f5c\u4e3a\u81ea\u5df1\u7684\u5fbd\u7ae0\uff0c\u6700\u7ec8\u4e5f\u6210\u4e3a\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u7684\u56fd\u5fbd\u3002[59] \u523016\u4e16\u7eaa\u521d\uff0c\u74e6\u897f\u91cc\u4e09\u4e16\uff08Vasili III\uff09\u901a\u8fc7\u517c\u5e76\u6700\u540e\u51e0\u4e2a\u72ec\u7acb\u7684\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u516c\u56fd\uff0c\u5b8c\u6210\u4e86\u6574\u4e2a\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u7684\u7edf\u4e00\u3002[74]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

2.4 \u6c99\u7687\u4fc4\u56fd | Tsardom of Russia<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Main article:\u00a0Tsardom of Russia<\/a>\u3010\u4e3b\u6761\u76ee\uff1a\u6c99\u7687\u4fc4\u56fd\u3011<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

See also:\u00a0Moscow, third Rome<\/a>\u3010\u53c2\u89c1\uff1a\u83ab\u65af\u79d1\uff0c\u7b2c\u4e09\u7f57\u9a6c\u3011<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\n
\u56fe1-4\u548c1-5\uff08\u53d1\u5e03\u4e8e\u77e5\u4e4e\u60f3\u6cd5\uff09<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

In development of the\u00a0Third Rome<\/a>\u00a0ideas, the grand prince\u00a0Ivan\u00a0IV<\/a>\u00a0(“the Terrible”) was officially crowned as the first\u00a0tsar of all Russia<\/a>\u00a0in 1547. The tsar\u00a0promulgated<\/a>\u00a0a new code of laws (Sudebnik of 1550<\/a>), established the first Russian feudal representative body (the\u00a0Zemsky Sobor<\/a>), revamped the military, curbed the influence of the clergy, and reorganised local government.[59]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0During his long reign, Ivan nearly doubled the already large Russian territory by annexing the three Tatar khanates:\u00a0Kazan<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Astrakhan<\/a>\u00a0along the\u00a0Volga<\/a>,[75]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and the\u00a0Khanate of Sibir<\/a>\u00a0in southwestern Siberia. Ultimately, by the end of the 16th century, Russia expanded east of the\u00a0Ural Mountains<\/a>.[76]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0However, the Tsardom was weakened by the long and unsuccessful\u00a0Livonian War<\/a>\u00a0against the coalition of the\u00a0Kingdom of Poland<\/a>\u00a0and the\u00a0Grand Duchy of Lithuania<\/a>\u00a0(later the united\u00a0Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth<\/a>), the\u00a0Kingdom of Sweden<\/a>, and\u00a0Denmark\u2013Norway<\/a>\u00a0for access to the Baltic coast and sea trade.[77]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In 1572, an invading army of\u00a0Crimean Tatars<\/a>\u00a0were\u00a0thoroughly defeated<\/a>\u00a0in the crucial\u00a0Battle of Molodi<\/a>.[78]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u5728\u201c\u7b2c\u4e09\u7f57\u9a6c\u201d\u601d\u60f3\u7684\u53d1\u5c55\u80cc\u666f\u4e0b\uff0c\u5927\u516c\u4f0a\u51e1\u56db\u4e16\uff08\u201c\u6050\u6016\u7684\u4f0a\u51e1\u201d\uff09\u4e8e1547\u5e74\u6b63\u5f0f\u52a0\u5195\u4e3a\u7b2c\u4e00\u4f4d\u5168\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u6c99\u7687<\/strong>\u3002\u6c99\u7687\u9881\u5e03\u4e86\u4e00\u90e8\u65b0\u7684\u6cd5\u5178\uff08\u300a1550\u5e74\u5ba1\u5224\u6cd5\u5178\u300bSudebnik of 1550\uff09\uff0c\u5efa\u7acb\u4e86\u4fc4\u56fd\u7b2c\u4e00\u4e2a\u5c01\u5efa\u4ee3\u8868\u673a\u6784\uff08\u7f19\u7ec5\u4f1a\u8bae Zemsky Sobor<\/strong>\uff09\uff0c\u6539\u9769\u4e86\u519b\u961f\uff0c\u9650\u5236\u4e86\u6559\u4f1a\u7684\u5f71\u54cd\u529b\uff0c\u5e76\u91cd\u7ec4\u4e86\u5730\u65b9\u884c\u653f\u4f53\u7cfb\u3002[59]\u5728\u4f0a\u51e1\u6f2b\u957f\u7684\u7edf\u6cbb\u671f\u95f4\uff0c\u4ed6\u901a\u8fc7\u517c\u5e76\u4f0f\u5c14\u52a0\u6cb3\u6d41\u57df\u7684\u5580\u5c71\u6c57\u56fd\u548c\u963f\u65af\u7279\u62c9\u7f55\u6c57\u56fd\uff0c\u4ee5\u53ca\u897f\u4f2f\u5229\u4e9a\u897f\u5357\u90e8\u7684\u897f\u6bd4\u5c14\u6c57\u56fd\uff0c\u4f7f\u539f\u672c\u5df2\u7ecf\u8fbd\u9614\u7684\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u9886\u571f\u51e0\u4e4e\u6269\u5927\u4e86\u4e00\u500d\u3002[75] \u523016\u4e16\u7eaa\u672b\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u7684\u7586\u57df\u5df2\u6269\u5c55\u81f3\u4e4c\u62c9\u5c14\u5c71\u8109\u4ee5\u4e1c\u3002[76]\u7136\u800c\uff0c\u6c99\u7687\u4fc4\u56fd\u56e0\u957f\u671f\u800c\u672a\u80fd\u53d6\u80dc\u7684\u7acb\u7a9d\u5c3c\u4e9a\u6218\u4e89<\/strong>\u800c\u906d\u5230\u524a\u5f31\u3002\u8fd9\u573a\u6218\u4e89\u662f\u4e0e\u6ce2\u5170\u738b\u56fd\u548c\u7acb\u9676\u5b9b\u5927\u516c\u56fd\uff08\u540e\u6765\u5408\u5e76\u4e3a\u6ce2\u5170\u2014\u7acb\u9676\u5b9b\u8054\u90a6\uff09\u3001\u745e\u5178\u738b\u56fd\u4ee5\u53ca\u4e39\u9ea6\u2014\u632a\u5a01\u8054\u76df\u4e4b\u95f4\u7206\u53d1\u7684\u51b2\u7a81\uff0c\u76ee\u7684\u662f\u4e89\u593a\u6ce2\u7f57\u7684\u6d77\u6cbf\u5cb8\u53ca\u6d77\u4e0a\u8d38\u6613\u901a\u9053\u7684\u63a7\u5236\u6743\u3002[77] 1572\u5e74\uff0c\u514b\u91cc\u7c73\u4e9a\u9791\u977c\u4eba\u7684\u5165\u4fb5\u519b\u961f\u5728\u5173\u952e\u6027\u7684\u83ab\u6d1b\u5b63\u6218\u5f79<\/strong>\uff08Battle of Molodi\uff09\u4e2d\u88ab\u5f7b\u5e95\u51fb\u8d25\u3002[78]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The death of Ivan’s sons marked the end of the ancient\u00a0Rurik dynasty<\/a>\u00a0in 1598, and in combination with the disastrous\u00a0famine of 1601\u20131603<\/a>, led to a civil war, the rule of pretenders, and foreign intervention during the\u00a0Time of Troubles<\/a>\u00a0in the early 17th century.[79]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The\u00a0Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth<\/a>, taking advantage, occupied parts of Russia, extending into the capital Moscow.[80]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In 1612, the Poles were forced to retreat by the Russian volunteer corps, led by merchant\u00a0Kuzma Minin<\/a>\u00a0and prince\u00a0Dmitry Pozharsky<\/a>.[81]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The\u00a0Romanov dynasty<\/a>\u00a0acceded to the throne in 1613 by the decision of the Zemsky Sobor, and the country started its gradual recovery from the crisis.[82]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u4f0a\u51e1\u56db\u4e16\u7684\u513f\u5b50\u4eec\u53bb\u4e16\u540e\uff0c\u7edf\u6cbb\u5df2\u4e45\u7684\u7559\u91cc\u514b\u738b\u671d\u4e8e1598\u5e74\u7ec8\u7ed3\u3002\u8fd9\u4e00\u4e8b\u4ef6\uff0c\u52a0\u4e4b1601\u20131603\u5e74\u95f4\u707e\u96be\u6027\u7684\u5927\u9965\u8352\uff0c\u5f15\u53d1\u4e8617\u4e16\u7eaa\u521d\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u7684\u5185\u6218\u3001\u4f2a\u6c99\u7687\u7684\u7edf\u6cbb\u4ee5\u53ca\u5916\u56fd\u5e72\u6d89\u7684\u201c\u6df7\u4e71\u65f6\u671f\u201d\uff08Time of Troubles\uff09\u3002[79] \u6ce2\u5170\u2014\u7acb\u9676\u5b9b\u8054\u90a6\u8d81\u673a\u5360\u9886\u4e86\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u90e8\u5206\u5730\u533a\uff0c\u751a\u81f3\u63a7\u5236\u4e86\u9996\u90fd\u83ab\u65af\u79d1\u3002[80]1612\u5e74\uff0c\u5728\u5546\u4eba\u5e93\u5179\u9a6c\u00b7\u7c73\u5b81\uff08Kuzma Minin\uff09\u548c\u5fb7\u7c73\u7279\u91cc\u00b7\u6ce2\u624e\u5c14\u65af\u57fa\u516c\u7235\uff08Dmitry Pozharsky\uff09\u9886\u5bfc\u7684\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5fd7\u613f\u519b\u7684\u6253\u51fb\u4e0b\uff0c\u6ce2\u5170\u519b\u961f\u88ab\u8feb\u64a4\u51fa\u3002[81] 1613\u5e74\uff0c\u901a\u8fc7\u7f19\u7ec5\u4f1a\u8bae\uff08Zemsky Sobor\uff09\u7684\u51b3\u5b9a\uff0c\u7f57\u66fc\u8bfa\u592b\u738b\u671d\u6b63\u5f0f\u767b\u4e0a\u738b\u4f4d\uff0c\u6807\u5fd7\u7740\u56fd\u5bb6\u5f00\u59cb\u9010\u6b65\u8d70\u51fa\u5371\u673a\u3002[82]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age of the\u00a0Cossacks<\/a>.[83]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In 1654, the Ukrainian leader,\u00a0Bohdan Khmelnytsky<\/a>, offered to place Ukraine under the protection of the Russian tsar,\u00a0Alexis<\/a>, whose acceptance of this offer led to another\u00a0Russo-Polish War<\/a>. Ultimately, Ukraine was split along the\u00a0Dnieper<\/a>, leaving the eastern part, (Left-bank Ukraine<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Kiev<\/a>) under Russian rule.[84]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In the east, the rapid Russian exploration and colonisation of vast Siberia continued, hunting for valuable furs and ivory.\u00a0Russian explorers<\/a>\u00a0pushed eastward primarily along the\u00a0Siberian River Routes<\/a>, and by the mid-17th century, there were Russian settlements in eastern Siberia, on the\u00a0Chukchi Peninsula<\/a>, along the\u00a0Amur River<\/a>, and on the coast of the Pacific Ocean.[83]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In 1648,\u00a0Semyon Dezhnyov<\/a>\u00a0became the first European to navigate through the\u00a0Bering Strait<\/a>.[85]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u5728\u6574\u4e2a17\u4e16\u7eaa\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u7ee7\u7eed\u6269\u5f20\u5176\u9886\u571f\uff0c\u4e5f\u88ab\u79f0\u4e3a\u54e5\u8428\u514b\u65f6\u4ee3\u3002[83] 1654\u5e74\uff0c\u4e4c\u514b\u5170\u9886\u5bfc\u4eba\u535a\u8d6b\u4e39\u00b7\u8d6b\u6885\u5229\u5c3c\u8328\u57fa\uff08Bohdan Khmelnytsky\uff09\u63d0\u51fa\u8ba9\u4e4c\u514b\u5170\u63a5\u53d7\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u6c99\u7687\u963f\u5217\u514b\u8c22\uff08Alexis\uff09\u4fdd\u62a4\u7684\u8bf7\u6c42\u3002\u6c99\u7687\u63a5\u53d7\u4e86\u8fd9\u4e00\u63d0\u8bae\uff0c\u4ece\u800c\u5f15\u53d1\u4e86\u65b0\u4e00\u8f6e\u4fc4\u6ce2\u6218\u4e89\u3002\u6700\u7ec8\uff0c\u4e4c\u514b\u5170\u6cbf\u7b2c\u8042\u4f2f\u6cb3\u5206\u88c2\uff0c\u4e1c\u90e8\u5730\u533a\uff08\u5de6\u5cb8\u4e4c\u514b\u5170\u548c\u57fa\u8f85\uff09\u5f52\u5165\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u7edf\u6cbb\u4e4b\u4e0b\u3002[84]\u5728\u4e1c\u90e8\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5bf9\u5e7f\u88a4\u897f\u4f2f\u5229\u4e9a\u5730\u533a\u7684\u63a2\u7d22\u548c\u6b96\u6c11\u8fc5\u901f\u63a8\u8fdb\uff0c\u4e3b\u8981\u76ee\u7684\u662f\u83b7\u53d6\u73cd\u8d35\u7684\u6bdb\u76ae\u548c\u8c61\u7259\u3002\u4fc4\u56fd\u63a2\u9669\u8005\u6cbf\u7740\u897f\u4f2f\u5229\u4e9a\u6cb3\u6d41\u8def\u7ebf\u4e0d\u65ad\u4e1c\u8fdb\uff0c\u523017\u4e16\u7eaa\u4e2d\u53f6\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5df2\u5728\u4e1c\u897f\u4f2f\u5229\u4e9a\u3001\u695a\u79d1\u5947\u534a\u5c9b\u3001\u9ed1\u9f99\u6c5f\u6d41\u57df\u4ee5\u53ca\u592a\u5e73\u6d0b\u6cbf\u5cb8\u5efa\u7acb\u4e86\u5b9a\u5c45\u70b9\u3002[83] 1648\u5e74\uff0c\u8c22\u82d7\u00b7\u6770\u65e5\u6d85\u592b\uff08Semyon Dezhnyov\uff09\u6210\u4e3a\u7b2c\u4e00\u4f4d\u7a7f\u8d8a\u767d\u4ee4\u6d77\u5ce1\u7684\u6b27\u6d32\u4eba\u3002[85]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

2.5 \u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5e1d\u56fd | Imperial Russia<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Main article:\u00a0Russian Empire<\/a>\u3010\u4e3b\u6761\u76ee\uff1a\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5e1d\u56fd\u3011<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\n
\u56fe1-6\uff08\u53d1\u5e03\u4e8e\u77e5\u4e4e\u60f3\u6cd5\uff09<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

Under\u00a0Peter the Great<\/a>, Russia was proclaimed an empire in 1721, and established itself as one of the European great powers. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated Sweden in the\u00a0Great Northern War<\/a>\u00a0(1700\u20131721), securing Russia’s access to the sea and sea trade. In 1703, on the Baltic Sea, Peter founded\u00a0Saint Petersburg<\/a>\u00a0as Russia’s new capital. Throughout his rule,\u00a0sweeping reforms were made<\/a>, which brought significant Western European cultural influences to Russia.[59]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0He was succeeded by\u00a0Catherine I<\/a>\u00a0(1725\u20131727), followed by\u00a0Peter II<\/a>\u00a0(1727\u20131730), and\u00a0Anna<\/a>. The reign of Peter\u00a0I’s daughter\u00a0Elizabeth<\/a>\u00a0in 1741\u20131762 saw Russia’s participation in the\u00a0Seven Years’ War<\/a>\u00a0(1756\u20131763). During the conflict, Russian troops overran\u00a0East Prussia<\/a>, reaching Berlin.[86]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0However, upon Elizabeth’s death, all these conquests were returned to the\u00a0Kingdom of Prussia<\/a>\u00a0by pro-Prussian\u00a0Peter\u00a0III of Russia<\/a>.[87]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u5728\u5f7c\u5f97\u5927\u5e1d\u7edf\u6cbb\u4e0b\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u4e8e1721\u5e74\u6b63\u5f0f\u5ba3\u5e03\u4e3a\u5e1d\u56fd\uff0c\u5e76\u6210\u4e3a\u6b27\u6d32\u5217\u5f3a\u4e4b\u4e00\u3002\u5f7c\u5f97\u4ece1682\u5e74\u7edf\u6cbb\u52301725\u5e74\uff0c\u4ed6\u5728\u5927\u5317\u65b9\u6218\u4e89\uff081700\u20131721\uff09\u4e2d\u51fb\u8d25\u4e86\u745e\u5178\uff0c\u786e\u4fdd\u4e86\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u901a\u5f80\u6d77\u6d0b\u53ca\u6d77\u4e0a\u8d38\u6613\u7684\u901a\u9053\u30021703\u5e74\uff0c\u5f7c\u5f97\u5728\u6ce2\u7f57\u7684\u6d77\u6cbf\u5cb8\u5efa\u7acb\u4e86\u5723\u5f7c\u5f97\u5821\uff0c\u5e76\u5c06\u5176\u4f5c\u4e3a\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u7684\u65b0\u9996\u90fd\u3002\u5728\u4ed6\u7684\u7edf\u6cbb\u671f\u95f4\uff0c\u8fdb\u884c\u4e86\u5e7f\u6cdb\u7684\u6539\u9769\uff0c\u4f7f\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u6df1\u53d7\u897f\u6b27\u6587\u5316\u7684\u5f71\u54cd\u3002[59]\u5f7c\u5f97\u5927\u5e1d\u4e4b\u540e\u4f9d\u6b21\u7531\u53f6\u5361\u6377\u7433\u5a1c\u4e00\u4e16\uff081725\u20131727\uff09\u3001\u5f7c\u5f97\u4e8c\u4e16\uff081727\u20131730\uff09\u548c\u5b89\u5a1c\u5973\u7687\u7ee7\u4f4d\u3002\u5f7c\u5f97\u4e00\u4e16\u7684\u5973\u513f\u4f0a\u4e3d\u838e\u767d\u5973\u7687\u5728\u4f4d\u671f\u95f4\uff081741\u20131762\uff09\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u53c2\u4e0e\u4e86\u4e03\u5e74\u6218\u4e89\uff081756\u20131763\uff09\u3002\u5728\u8fd9\u573a\u6218\u4e89\u4e2d\uff0c\u4fc4\u519b\u5360\u9886\u4e86\u4e1c\u666e\u9c81\u58eb\uff0c\u5e76\u63a8\u8fdb\u81f3\u67cf\u6797\u3002[86] \u7136\u800c\uff0c\u4f0a\u4e3d\u838e\u767d\u5973\u7687\u53bb\u4e16\u540e\uff0c\u4eb2\u666e\u9c81\u58eb\u7684\u5f7c\u5f97\u4e09\u4e16\u7ee7\u4f4d\uff0c\u5c06\u6240\u6709\u8fd9\u4e9b\u6218\u65f6\u5360\u9886\u7684\u571f\u5730\u5f52\u8fd8\u7ed9\u4e86\u666e\u9c81\u58eb\u738b\u56fd\u3002[87]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Catherine\u00a0II<\/a>\u00a0(“the Great”), who ruled in 1762\u20131796, presided over the\u00a0Russian Age of Enlightenment<\/a>. She extended Russian political control over the Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth and\u00a0annexed most of its territories into Russia<\/a>, making it the most populous country in Europe.[88]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In the south, after the successful\u00a0Russo-Turkish Wars<\/a>\u00a0against the\u00a0Ottoman Empire<\/a>, Catherine advanced Russia’s boundary to the Black Sea, by dissolving the\u00a0Crimean Khanate<\/a>, and\u00a0annexing Crimea<\/a>.[89]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0As a result of victories over\u00a0Qajar Iran<\/a>\u00a0through the\u00a0Russo-Persian Wars<\/a>, by the first half of the 19th century, Russia also\u00a0conquered the Caucasus<\/a>.[90]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Catherine’s successor, her son\u00a0Paul<\/a>, was\u00a0unstable and focused predominantly on domestic issues<\/a>.[91]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Following his short reign, Catherine’s strategy was continued with\u00a0Alexander\u00a0I<\/a>‘s (1801\u20131825)\u00a0wresting of Finland<\/a>\u00a0from the weakened Sweden in 1809,[92]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and of\u00a0Bessarabia<\/a>\u00a0from the Ottomans in 1812.[93]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In North America, the Russians became the first Europeans to\u00a0reach and colonise Alaska<\/a>.[94]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In 1803\u20131806, the\u00a0first Russian circumnavigation<\/a>\u00a0was made.[95]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In 1820,\u00a0a Russian expedition<\/a>\u00a0discovered the continent of\u00a0Antarctica<\/a>.[96]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u53f6\u5361\u6377\u7433\u5a1c\u4e8c\u4e16<\/strong>\uff08\u201c\u53f6\u5361\u6377\u7433\u5a1c\u5927\u5e1d\u201d\uff09\u57281762\u5e74\u81f31796\u5e74\u5728\u4f4d\u671f\u95f4\uff0c\u9886\u5bfc\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u8fdb\u5165\u4e86\u542f\u8499\u65f6\u4ee3\u3002\u5979\u6269\u5927\u4e86\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5bf9\u6ce2\u5170\u2014\u7acb\u9676\u5b9b\u8054\u90a6\u7684\u653f\u6cbb\u63a7\u5236\uff0c\u5e76\u541e\u5e76\u4e86\u5176\u5927\u90e8\u5206\u9886\u571f\uff0c\u4f7f\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u6210\u4e3a\u5f53\u65f6\u6b27\u6d32\u4eba\u53e3\u6700\u591a\u7684\u56fd\u5bb6\u3002[88]\u5728\u5357\u65b9\uff0c\u901a\u8fc7\u5728\u4fc4\u571f\u6218\u4e89\u4e2d\u6218\u80dc\u5965\u65af\u66fc\u5e1d\u56fd\uff0c\u53f6\u5361\u6377\u7433\u5a1c\u5c06\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u7684\u8fb9\u754c\u63a8\u8fdb\u81f3\u9ed1\u6d77\u5730\u533a\uff0c\u5979\u8fd8\u89e3\u6563\u4e86\u514b\u91cc\u7c73\u4e9a\u6c57\u56fd\uff0c\u5e76\u5c06\u514b\u91cc\u7c73\u4e9a\u7eb3\u5165\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u7248\u56fe\u3002[89] \u6b64\u5916\uff0c\u5728\u4e0e\u4f0a\u6717\u5361\u624e\u5c14\u738b\u671d\u8fdb\u884c\u7684\u4fc4\u6ce2\u6218\u4e89\u4e2d\u83b7\u80dc\u540e\uff0c\u523019\u4e16\u7eaa\u4e0a\u534a\u53f6\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u4e5f\u5f81\u670d\u4e86\u6574\u4e2a\u9ad8\u52a0\u7d22\u5730\u533a\u3002[90]\u53f6\u5361\u6377\u7433\u5a1c\u7684\u7ee7\u4efb\u8005\u662f\u5979\u7684\u513f\u5b50\u4fdd\u7f57\u4e00\u4e16\uff0c\u4f46\u4ed6\u7edf\u6cbb\u4e0d\u7a33\u5b9a\uff0c\u4e3b\u8981\u5173\u6ce8\u56fd\u5185\u4e8b\u52a1\u3002[91] \u5728\u4ed6\u77ed\u6682\u7684\u7edf\u6cbb\u4e4b\u540e\uff0c\u53f6\u5361\u6377\u7433\u5a1c\u7684\u6269\u5f20\u653f\u7b56\u7531\u5979\u7684\u5b59\u5b50\u4e9a\u5386\u5c71\u5927\u4e00\u4e16\uff081801\u20131825\u5e74\u5728\u4f4d\uff09\u7ee7\u7eed\u63a8\u884c\u3002\u4ed6\u57281809\u5e74\u4ece\u65e5\u76ca\u8870\u5f31\u7684\u745e\u5178\u624b\u4e2d\u593a\u53d6\u4e86\u82ac\u5170\uff0c[92] \u53c8\u4e8e1812\u5e74\u4ece\u5965\u65af\u66fc\u5e1d\u56fd\u624b\u4e2d\u5360\u9886\u4e86\u6bd4\u8428\u62c9\u6bd4\u4e9a\uff08\u4eca\u6469\u5c14\u591a\u74e6\u90e8\u5206\u5730\u533a\uff09\u3002[93]\u5728\u5317\u7f8e\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u4eba\u6210\u4e3a\u9996\u6279\u62b5\u8fbe\u5e76\u6b96\u6c11\u963f\u62c9\u65af\u52a0\u7684\u6b27\u6d32\u4eba\u3002[94] 1803\u5e74\u81f31806\u5e74\u95f4\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5b8c\u6210\u4e86\u9996\u6b21\u73af\u7403\u822a\u884c\u3002[95] 1820\u5e74\uff0c\u4e00\u652f\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u63a2\u9669\u961f\u53d1\u73b0\u4e86\u5357\u6781\u6d32\u5927\u9646\u3002[96]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

2.5.1 \u5f3a\u56fd\u5730\u4f4d\u4e0e\u793e\u4f1a\u3001\u79d1\u5b66\u548c\u827a\u672f\u7684\u53d1\u5c55<\/strong> | Great power and development of society, sciences, and arts<\/strong><\/h4>\n\n\n\n
\n
\u56fe1-7\uff08\u53d1\u5e03\u4e8e\u77e5\u4e4e\u60f3\u6cd5\uff09<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

During the\u00a0Napoleonic Wars<\/a>, Russia joined alliances with various European powers, and fought against France. The\u00a0French invasion of Russia<\/a>\u00a0at the height of Napoleon’s power in 1812 reached Moscow, but eventually failed as the obstinate resistance in combination with the bitterly cold\u00a0Russian winter<\/a>\u00a0led to a disastrous defeat of invaders, in which the pan-European\u00a0Grande Arm\u00e9e<\/a>\u00a0faced utter destruction. Led by\u00a0Mikhail Kutuzov<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly<\/a>, the\u00a0Imperial Russian Army<\/a>\u00a0ousted Napoleon and drove throughout Europe in the\u00a0War of the Sixth Coalition<\/a>, ultimately entering Paris.[97]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Alexander I<\/a>\u00a0controlled Russia’s delegation at the\u00a0Congress of Vienna<\/a>, which defined the map of post-Napoleonic Europe.[98]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u5728\u62ff\u7834\u4ed1\u6218\u4e89\u671f\u95f4\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u4e0e\u591a\u4e2a\u6b27\u6d32\u56fd\u5bb6\u7ed3\u76df\uff0c\u5171\u540c\u5bf9\u6297\u6cd5\u56fd\u30021812\u5e74\uff0c\u62ff\u7834\u4ed1\u52bf\u529b\u8fbe\u5230\u9876\u5cf0\u65f6\u5bf9\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u53d1\u52a8\u5165\u4fb5\uff0c\u6cd5\u519b\u4e00\u5ea6\u653b\u81f3\u83ab\u65af\u79d1\uff0c\u4f46\u6700\u7ec8\u56e0\u4fc4\u519b\u987d\u5f3a\u62b5\u6297\u53ca\u4e25\u9177\u7684\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5bd2\u51ac\u800c\u5bfc\u81f4\u4e86\u4e00\u573a\u707e\u96be\u6027\u7684\u5931\u8d25\uff0c\u6574\u4e2a\u6cdb\u6b27\u5927\u519b\u51e0\u4e4e\u5168\u519b\u8986\u6ca1\u3002\u7531\u7c73\u54c8\u4f0a\u5c14\u00b7\u5e93\u56fe\u4f50\u592b\uff08Mikhail Kutuzov\uff09\u548c\u7c73\u54c8\u4f0a\u5c14\u00b7\u5b89\u5fb7\u70c8\u4e9a\u65af\u00b7\u5df4\u514b\u83b1\u00b7\u5fb7\u6258\u5229\uff08Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly\uff09\u9886\u5bfc\u7684\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5e1d\u56fd\u519b\u961f\u51fb\u8d25\u4e86\u62ff\u7834\u4ed1\uff0c\u5e76\u5728\u7b2c\u516d\u6b21\u53cd\u6cd5\u540c\u76df\u6218\u4e89\u4e2d\u6a2a\u626b\u6b27\u6d32\uff0c\u6700\u7ec8\u8fdb\u5165\u5df4\u9ece\u3002[97] \u4e9a\u5386\u5c71\u5927\u4e00\u4e16\u4ee3\u8868\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u51fa\u5e2d\u7ef4\u4e5f\u7eb3\u4f1a\u8bae\uff0c\u8fd9\u6b21\u4f1a\u8bae\u786e\u5b9a\u4e86\u62ff\u7834\u4ed1\u6218\u540e\u6b27\u6d32\u7684\u5730\u56fe\u3002[98]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The officers who pursued Napoleon into Western Europe brought ideas of liberalism back to Russia, and attempted to curtail the tsar’s powers during the abortive\u00a0Decembrist revolt<\/a>\u00a0of 1825.[99]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0At the end of the conservative reign of\u00a0Nicholas I<\/a>\u00a0(1825\u20131855), a zenith period of Russia’s power and influence in Europe, was disrupted by defeat in the\u00a0Crimean War<\/a>.[100]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u90a3\u4e9b\u8ffd\u51fb\u62ff\u7834\u4ed1\u8fdb\u5165\u897f\u6b27\u7684\u519b\u5b98\u4eec\u5c06\u81ea\u7531\u4e3b\u4e49\u7684\u601d\u60f3\u5e26\u56de\u4e86\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\uff0c\u5e76\u57281825\u5e74\u672a\u9042\u7684\u5341\u4e8c\u6708\u515a\u4eba\u8d77\u4e49\u4e2d\u5c1d\u8bd5\u9650\u5236\u6c99\u7687\u7684\u6743\u529b\u3002[99] \u5c3c\u53e4\u62c9\u4e00\u4e16\uff081825-1855\u5e74\u5728\u4f4d\uff09\u4fdd\u5b88\u7edf\u6cbb\u672b\u671f\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5728\u6b27\u6d32\u7684\u6743\u529b\u548c\u5f71\u54cd\u529b\u8fbe\u5230\u9876\u70b9\uff0c\u4f46\u514b\u91cc\u7c73\u4e9a\u6218\u4e89\u4e2d\u7684\u5931\u8d25\u6253\u7834\u4e86\u8fd9\u4e00\u5c40\u9762\u3002[100]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

2.5.2 \u4f1f\u5927\u7684\u81ea\u7531\u4e3b\u4e49\u6539\u9769\u4e0e\u8d44\u672c\u4e3b\u4e49<\/strong> | Great liberal reforms and capitalism<\/strong><\/h4>\n\n\n\n

Nicholas’s successor\u00a0Alexander\u00a0II<\/a>\u00a0(1855\u20131881) enacted significant changes throughout the country, including the\u00a0emancipation reform of 1861<\/a>.[101]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0These reforms spurred industrialisation, and modernised the Imperial Russian Army, which liberated much of the\u00a0Balkans<\/a>\u00a0from Ottoman rule in the aftermath of the\u00a01877\u20131878 Russo-Turkish War<\/a>.[102]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0During most of the 19th and early 20th century, Russia and\u00a0Britain<\/a>\u00a0colluded over\u00a0Afghanistan<\/a>\u00a0and its neighbouring territories in\u00a0Central<\/a>\u00a0and South Asia; the rivalry between the two major European empires came to be known as the\u00a0Great Game<\/a>.[103]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u5c3c\u53e4\u62c9\u65af\u4e00\u4e16\u7684\u7ee7\u4efb\u8005\u4e9a\u5386\u5c71\u5927\u4e8c\u4e16\uff081855\u20131881\u5e74\u5728\u4f4d\uff09\u5728\u5168\u56fd\u8303\u56f4\u5185\u5b9e\u65bd\u4e86\u591a\u9879\u91cd\u5927\u6539\u9769\uff0c\u5176\u4e2d\u5305\u62ec1861\u5e74\u7684\u519c\u5974\u5236\u89e3\u653e\u6539\u9769\u3002[101] \u8fd9\u4e9b\u6539\u9769\u63a8\u52a8\u4e86\u5de5\u4e1a\u5316\u8fdb\u7a0b\uff0c\u5e76\u4f7f\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5e1d\u56fd\u519b\u961f\u5b9e\u73b0\u73b0\u4ee3\u5316\u3002\u57281877\u20131878\u5e74\u4fc4\u571f\u6218\u4e89\u7ed3\u675f\u540e\uff0c\u4fc4\u519b\u89e3\u653e\u4e86\u5df4\u5c14\u5e72\u5730\u533a\u7684\u5927\u90e8\u5206\u9886\u571f\uff0c\u4f7f\u5176\u6446\u8131\u4e86\u5965\u65af\u66fc\u5e1d\u56fd\u7684\u7edf\u6cbb\u3002[102]\u5728\u6574\u4e2a19\u4e16\u7eaa\u548c20\u4e16\u7eaa\u521d\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u4e0e\u82f1\u56fd\u5728\u963f\u5bcc\u6c57\u53ca\u5176\u90bb\u8fd1\u7684\u4e2d\u4e9a\u548c\u5357\u4e9a\u5730\u533a\u5c55\u5f00\u89d2\u529b\uff1b\u8fd9\u4e24\u4e2a\u6b27\u6d32\u5927\u56fd\u4e4b\u95f4\u7684\u7ade\u4e89\u88ab\u79f0\u4e3a\u201c\u5927\u535a\u5f08\u201d\uff08The Great Game\uff09\u3002[103]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The late 19th century saw the rise of various socialist movements in Russia. Alexander\u00a0II was\u00a0assassinated<\/a>\u00a0in 1881 by revolutionary terrorists.[104]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The reign of his son\u00a0Alexander\u00a0III<\/a>\u00a0(1881\u20131894) was less liberal but more peaceful.[105]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u301119\u4e16\u7eaa\u540e\u671f\uff0c\u4fc4\u56fd\u51fa\u73b0\u4e86\u5404\u79cd\u793e\u4f1a\u4e3b\u4e49\u8fd0\u52a8\u30021881\u5e74\uff0c\u4e9a\u5386\u5c71\u5927\u4e8c\u4e16\u88ab\u9769\u547d\u6050\u6016\u5206\u5b50\u523a\u6740\u8eab\u4ea1\u3002[104] \u4ed6\u7684\u513f\u5b50\u4e9a\u5386\u5c71\u5927\u4e09\u4e16\uff081881\u20131894\u5e74\u5728\u4f4d\uff09\u7edf\u6cbb\u65f6\u671f\u8f83\u4e3a\u4fdd\u5b88\uff0c\u4f46\u56fd\u5bb6\u6574\u4f53\u66f4\u52a0\u548c\u5e73\u7a33\u5b9a\u3002[105]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

2.5.3 \u541b\u4e3b\u7acb\u5baa\u4e0e\u7b2c\u4e00\u6b21\u4e16\u754c\u5927\u6218<\/strong> | Constitutional monarchy and World War<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
\n
\u56fe1-8\uff08\u53d1\u5e03\u4e8e\u77e5\u4e4e\u60f3\u6cd5\uff09<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

Under last Russian emperor,\u00a0Nicholas\u00a0II<\/a>\u00a0(1894\u20131917), the\u00a0Revolution of 1905<\/a>\u00a0was triggered by the humiliating failure of the\u00a0Russo-Japanese War<\/a>.[106]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The uprising was put down, but the government was forced to concede major reforms (Russian Constitution of 1906<\/a>), including granting\u00a0freedoms of speech<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0assembly<\/a>, the legalisation of political parties, and the creation of an elected legislative body, the\u00a0State Duma<\/a>.[107]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u5728\u672b\u4ee3\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u7687\u5e1d\u5c3c\u53e4\u62c9\u4e8c\u4e16\uff081894\u20131917\u5e74\u5728\u4f4d\uff09\u7edf\u6cbb\u671f\u95f4\uff0c1905\u5e74\u9769\u547d\u56e0\u65e5\u4fc4\u6218\u4e89\u7684\u60e8\u8d25\u800c\u7206\u53d1\uff0c\u8fd9\u573a\u6218\u4e89\u4f7f\u4fc4\u56fd\u8499\u53d7\u5de8\u5927\u803b\u8fb1\u3002[106] \u8d77\u4e49\u867d\u7136\u88ab\u9547\u538b\uff0c\u4f46\u653f\u5e9c\u88ab\u8feb\u505a\u51fa\u91cd\u5927\u8ba9\u6b65\uff0c\u9881\u5e03\u4e861906\u5e74\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5baa\u6cd5\uff0c[107] \u6539\u9769\u5185\u5bb9\u5305\u62ec\uff1a\u8d4b\u4e88\u8a00\u8bba\u81ea\u7531\u548c\u96c6\u4f1a\u81ea\u7531\u3001\u5141\u8bb8\u653f\u515a\u5408\u6cd5\u5b58\u5728\uff0c\u5e76\u8bbe\u7acb\u4e86\u4e00\u4e2a\u9009\u4e3e\u4ea7\u751f\u7684\u7acb\u6cd5\u673a\u6784\u2014\u2014\u56fd\u5bb6\u675c\u9a6c\uff08State Duma\uff09\u3002<\/p>\n\n\n\n

2.6 \u9769\u547d\u548c\u5185\u6218 | Revolution and civil war<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Main articles:\u00a0Russian Revolution<\/a>,\u00a0Russian Civil War<\/a>, and\u00a0Dissolution of the Russian Empire<\/a>
\u3010\u4e3b\u6761\u76ee\uff1a\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u9769\u547d\u3001\u4fc4\u56fd\u5185\u6218\u3001\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5e1d\u56fd\u7684\u89e3\u4f53\u3011<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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\u56fe1-9\u548c1-10\uff08\u53d1\u5e03\u4e8e\u77e5\u4e4e\u60f3\u6cd5\uff09<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

In 1914,\u00a0Russia entered World War\u00a0I<\/a>\u00a0in response to\u00a0Austria-Hungary<\/a>‘s declaration of war on Russia’s ally\u00a0Serbia<\/a>,[108]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and fought across multiple fronts while isolated from its\u00a0Triple Entente<\/a>\u00a0allies.[109]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In 1916, the\u00a0Brusilov Offensive<\/a>\u00a0of the Imperial Russian Army almost completely destroyed the\u00a0Austro-Hungarian Army<\/a>.[110]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0However, the already-existing public distrust of the regime was deepened by the rising costs of war,\u00a0high casualties<\/a>, and rumors of corruption and treason. All this formed the climate for the\u00a0Russian Revolution<\/a>\u00a0of 1917, carried out in two major acts.[59]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In early 1917,\u00a0Nicholas II<\/a>\u00a0was\u00a0forced to abdicate<\/a>; he and his family were imprisoned and\u00a0later executed<\/a>\u00a0during the\u00a0Russian Civil War<\/a>.[111]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The monarchy was replaced by a shaky coalition of political parties that declared itself the\u00a0Provisional Government<\/a>,[112]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and proclaimed the\u00a0Russian Republic<\/a>. On 19 January [O.S.<\/a>\u00a06 January], 1918, the\u00a0Russian Constituent Assembly<\/a>\u00a0declared Russia a democratic federal republic (thus ratifying the Provisional Government’s decision). The next day the Constituent Assembly was dissolved by the\u00a0All-Russian Central Executive Committee<\/a>.[59]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u30111914\u5e74\uff0c\u7531\u4e8e\u5965\u5308\u5e1d\u56fd\u5bf9\u4fc4\u56fd\u7684\u76df\u53cb\u585e\u5c14\u7ef4\u4e9a\u5ba3\u6218\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u52a0\u5165\u7b2c\u4e00\u6b21\u4e16\u754c\u5927\u6218\u3002[108] \u5728\u6218\u4e89\u4e2d\uff0c\u4fc4\u56fd\u5728\u591a\u4e2a\u6218\u7ebf\u4f5c\u6218\uff0c\u540c\u65f6\u4e0e\u5176\u534f\u7ea6\u56fd\u76df\u53cb\u4e4b\u95f4\u8054\u7cfb\u5b64\u7acb\u3002[109] 1916\u5e74\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5e1d\u56fd\u9646\u519b\u53d1\u52a8\u5e03\u9c81\u897f\u6d1b\u592b\u653b\u52bf\uff0c\u51e0\u4e4e\u5f7b\u5e95\u6467\u6bc1\u4e86\u5965\u5308\u5e1d\u56fd\u519b\u961f\u3002[110] \u7136\u800c\uff0c\u7531\u4e8e\u6218\u4e89\u5e26\u6765\u7684\u9ad8\u6602\u4ee3\u4ef7\u3001\u5de8\u5927\u7684\u4eba\u5458\u4f24\u4ea1\uff0c\u4ee5\u53ca\u5173\u4e8e\u8150\u8d25\u548c\u53db\u56fd\u7684\u4f20\u95fb\uff0c\u516c\u4f17\u5bf9\u653f\u6743\u65e9\u5df2\u5b58\u5728\u7684\u4e0d\u4fe1\u4efb\u60c5\u7eea\u8fdb\u4e00\u6b65\u52a0\u6df1\u3002\u8fd9\u4e00\u5207\u4e3a1917\u5e74\u7684\u4fc4\u56fd\u9769\u547d\u521b\u9020\u4e86\u6761\u4ef6\uff0c\u8fd9\u573a\u9769\u547d\u5206\u4e3a\u4e24\u4e2a\u4e3b\u8981\u9636\u6bb5\u8fdb\u884c\u3002[59]1917\u5e74\u521d\uff0c\u5c3c\u53e4\u62c9\u4e8c\u4e16\u88ab\u8feb\u9000\u4f4d\uff1b\u4ed6\u548c\u4ed6\u7684\u5bb6\u4eba\u968f\u540e\u88ab\u76d1\u7981\uff0c\u5e76\u5728\u4fc4\u56fd\u5185\u6218\u671f\u95f4\u906d\u5230\u5904\u51b3\u3002[111] \u541b\u4e3b\u5236\u88ab\u4e00\u4e2a\u7531\u591a\u4e2a\u653f\u515a\u7ec4\u6210\u7684\u4e34\u65f6\u653f\u5e9c\u53d6\u4ee3\uff0c\u8be5\u653f\u5e9c\u5ba3\u5e03\u81ea\u5df1\u4e3a\u4e34\u65f6\u653f\u6743\uff0c[112] \u5e76\u5ba3\u544a\u6210\u7acb\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5171\u548c\u56fd\u30021918\u5e741\u670819\u65e5\uff08\u5112\u7565\u53861\u67086\u65e5\uff09\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u7acb\u5baa\u4f1a\u8bae\u5ba3\u5e03\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u4e3a\u6c11\u4e3b\u8054\u90a6\u5171\u548c\u56fd\uff08\u4ece\u800c\u6b63\u5f0f\u6279\u51c6\u4e86\u4e34\u65f6\u653f\u5e9c\u7684\u51b3\u5b9a\uff09\u3002\u6b21\u65e5\uff0c\u7acb\u5baa\u4f1a\u8bae\u5373\u88ab\u5168\u4fc4\u4e2d\u592e\u6267\u884c\u59d4\u5458\u4f1a\u89e3\u6563\u3002[59]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

An alternative socialist establishment co-existed, the\u00a0Petrograd Soviet<\/a>, wielding power through the democratically elected councils of workers and peasants, called\u00a0soviets<\/a><\/em>. The rule of the new authorities only aggravated the crisis in the country instead of resolving it, and eventually, the\u00a0October Revolution<\/a>, led by\u00a0Bolshevik<\/a>\u00a0leader\u00a0Vladimir Lenin<\/a>, overthrew the Provisional Government and gave full governing power to the soviets, leading to the creation of the world’s first\u00a0socialist state<\/a>.[59]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The\u00a0Russian Civil War<\/a>\u00a0broke out between the\u00a0anti-communist<\/a>\u00a0White movement<\/a>\u00a0and the Bolsheviks with its\u00a0Red Army<\/a>.[113]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In the aftermath of signing the\u00a0Treaty of Brest-Litovsk<\/a>\u00a0that concluded hostilities with the\u00a0Central Powers<\/a>\u00a0of\u00a0World War\u00a0I<\/a>, Bolshevist Russia surrendered most of its western territories, which hosted 34% of its population, 54% of its industries, 32% of its agricultural land, and roughly 90% of its coal mines.[114]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u4e0e\u6b64\u540c\u65f6\uff0c\u53e6\u4e00\u4e2a\u793e\u4f1a\u4e3b\u4e49\u6027\u8d28\u7684\u653f\u6743\u4e5f\u5e76\u884c\u5b58\u5728\u2014\u2014\u5f7c\u5f97\u683c\u52d2\u82cf\u7ef4\u57c3\uff08Petrograd Soviet\uff09\uff0c\u5b83\u901a\u8fc7\u5de5\u4eba\u548c\u519c\u6c11\u9009\u4e3e\u4ea7\u751f\u7684\u4ee3\u8868\u673a\u6784\uff08\u79f0\u4e3a\u201c\u82cf\u7ef4\u57c3\u201d\uff09\u884c\u4f7f\u6743\u529b\u3002\u65b0\u653f\u6743\u7684\u7edf\u6cbb\u4e0d\u4ec5\u672a\u80fd\u7f13\u89e3\u56fd\u5bb6\u5371\u673a\uff0c\u53cd\u800c\u4f7f\u5c40\u52bf\u66f4\u52a0\u6076\u5316\u3002\u6700\u7ec8\uff0c\u5728\u5e03\u5c14\u4ec0\u7ef4\u514b\u9886\u8896\u5217\u5b81\u7684\u9886\u5bfc\u4e0b\u7206\u53d1\u4e86\u5341\u6708\u9769\u547d\uff0c\u63a8\u7ffb\u4e86\u4e34\u65f6\u653f\u5e9c\uff0c\u5c06\u5168\u90e8\u653f\u6743\u79fb\u4ea4\u7ed9\u82cf\u7ef4\u57c3\uff0c\u7531\u6b64\u5efa\u7acb\u4e86\u4e16\u754c\u4e0a\u7b2c\u4e00\u4e2a\u793e\u4f1a\u4e3b\u4e49\u56fd\u5bb6\u3002[59]\u4fc4\u56fd\u5185\u6218\u968f\u5373\u5728\u53cd\u5171\u4e3b\u4e49\u7684\u767d\u519b\u8fd0\u52a8\u4e0e\u5e03\u5c14\u4ec0\u7ef4\u514b\u53ca\u5176\u7ea2\u519b\u4e4b\u95f4\u7206\u53d1\u3002[113] \u5728\u4e0e\u7b2c\u4e00\u6b21\u4e16\u754c\u5927\u6218\u4e2d\u7684\u540c\u76df\u56fd\u7b7e\u8ba2\u300a\u5e03\u5217\u65af\u7279-\u7acb\u6258\u592b\u65af\u514b\u6761\u7ea6\u300b\u540e\uff0c\u5e03\u5c14\u4ec0\u7ef4\u514b\u4fc4\u56fd\u5931\u53bb\u4e86\u5927\u90e8\u5206\u897f\u90e8\u9886\u571f\u3002\u8fd9\u4e9b\u5730\u533a\u62e5\u6709\u5f53\u65f6\u4fc4\u56fd34%\u7684\u4eba\u53e3\u300154%\u7684\u5de5\u4e1a\u300132%\u7684\u8015\u5730\uff0c\u4ee5\u53ca\u5927\u7ea690%\u7684\u7164\u77ff\u3002[114]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The\u00a0Allied powers<\/a>\u00a0launched an unsuccessful\u00a0military intervention<\/a>\u00a0in support of anti-communist forces.[115]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In the meantime, both the Bolsheviks and White movement carried out campaigns of deportations and executions against each other, known respectively as the\u00a0Red Terror<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0White Terror<\/a>.[116]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0By the end of the violent civil war, Russia’s economy and infrastructure were heavily damaged, and as many as 10 million perished during the war, mostly civilians.[117]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Millions became\u00a0White \u00e9migr\u00e9s<\/a>,[118]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and the\u00a0Russian famine of 1921\u20131922<\/a>\u00a0claimed up to five\u00a0million victims.[119]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u534f\u7ea6\u56fd\u5217\u5f3a\u66fe\u51fa\u5175\u5e72\u6d89\uff0c\u8bd5\u56fe\u652f\u6301\u4fc4\u56fd\u5883\u5185\u7684\u53cd\u5171\u52bf\u529b\uff0c\u4f46\u6700\u7ec8\u672a\u80fd\u6210\u529f\u3002[115] \u5728\u6b64\u671f\u95f4\uff0c\u5e03\u5c14\u4ec0\u7ef4\u514b\u548c\u767d\u519b\u5404\u81ea\u53d1\u52a8\u4e86\u9488\u5bf9\u5bf9\u65b9\u7684\u9a71\u9010\u4e0e\u5904\u51b3\u884c\u52a8\uff0c\u5206\u522b\u88ab\u79f0\u4e3a\u201c\u7ea2\u8272\u6050\u6016\u201d\u548c\u201c\u767d\u8272\u6050\u6016\u201d\u3002[116]\u8840\u8165\u7684\u5185\u6218\u7ed3\u675f\u65f6\uff0c\u4fc4\u56fd\u7684\u7ecf\u6d4e\u548c\u57fa\u7840\u8bbe\u65bd\u906d\u5230\u4e25\u91cd\u7834\u574f\uff0c\u6218\u4e89\u671f\u95f4\u6b7b\u4ea1\u4eba\u6570\u53ef\u80fd\u9ad8\u8fbe\u4e00\u5343\u4e07\u4eba\uff0c\u5176\u4e2d\u5927\u591a\u6570\u4e3a\u5e73\u6c11\u3002[117] \u6570\u4ee5\u767e\u4e07\u8ba1\u7684\u4eba\u6d41\u4ea1\u6d77\u5916\uff0c\u6210\u4e3a\u201c\u767d\u4fc4\u4fa8\u6c11\u201d\u3002[118] \u968f\u540e\u7206\u53d1\u76841921\u20131922\u5e74\u4fc4\u56fd\u5927\u9965\u8352\u53c8\u5bfc\u81f4\u591a\u8fbe\u4e94\u767e\u4e07\u4eba\u4e27\u751f\u3002[119]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

2.7 \u82cf\u8054 | Soviet Union<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Main article:\u00a0History of the Soviet Union<\/a>\u3010\u4e3b\u6761\u76ee\uff1a\u82cf\u8054\u5386\u53f2\u3011<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

2.7.1 \u8ba1\u5212\u7ecf\u6d4e\u4e0e\u82cf\u8054\u793e\u4f1a | Command economy and Soviet society<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
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\u56fe1-11\uff08\u53d1\u5e03\u4e8e\u77e5\u4e4e\u60f3\u6cd5\uff09<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

On 30 December 1922, Lenin and his aides\u00a0formed<\/a>\u00a0the\u00a0Soviet Union<\/a>, by joining the\u00a0Russian SFSR<\/a>\u00a0into a single state with the\u00a0Byelorussian<\/a>,\u00a0Transcaucasian<\/a>, and\u00a0Ukrainian<\/a>\u00a0republics.[120]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Eventually internal border changes and annexations during World War II created a union of\u00a015 republics<\/a>, the largest in size and population being the Russian SFSR, which dominated the union politically, culturally, and economically.[121]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u30111922 \u5e74 12 \u6708 30 \u65e5\uff0c\u5217\u5b81\u548c\u4ed6\u7684\u52a9\u624b\u4eec\u5c06\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u82cf\u7ef4\u57c3\u8054\u90a6\u793e\u4f1a\u4e3b\u4e49\u5171\u548c\u56fd\u4e0e\u767d\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u3001\u5916\u9ad8\u52a0\u7d22\u548c\u4e4c\u514b\u5170\u5171\u548c\u56fd\u5408\u5e76\u4e3a\u4e00\u4e2a\u56fd\u5bb6\uff0c\u6210\u7acb\u4e86\u82cf\u8054\u3002[120] \u6700\u7ec8\uff0c\u7b2c\u4e8c\u6b21\u4e16\u754c\u5927\u6218\u671f\u95f4\u7684\u5185\u90e8\u8fb9\u754c\u53d8\u66f4\u548c\u541e\u5e76\u521b\u5efa\u4e86\u4e00\u4e2a\u7531 15 \u4e2a\u5171\u548c\u56fd\u7ec4\u6210\u7684\u8054\u76df\uff0c\u5176\u4e2d\u9762\u79ef\u548c\u4eba\u53e3\u6700\u591a\u7684\u662f\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u82cf\u7ef4\u57c3\u8054\u90a6\u793e\u4f1a\u4e3b\u4e49\u5171\u548c\u56fd\uff0c\u5b83\u5728\u653f\u6cbb\u3001\u6587\u5316\u548c\u7ecf\u6d4e\u4e0a\u4e3b\u5bfc\u7740\u8054\u76df\u3002[121]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Following\u00a0Lenin’s death<\/a>\u00a0in 1924, a\u00a0troika<\/a>\u00a0was designated to take charge. Eventually\u00a0Joseph Stalin<\/a>, the\u00a0General Secretary of the Communist Party<\/a>, managed to suppress all opposition factions and consolidate power in his hands to become the country’s dictator by the 1930s.[122]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Leon Trotsky<\/a>, the main proponent of\u00a0world revolution<\/a>, was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929,[123]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and Stalin’s idea of\u00a0Socialism in One Country<\/a>\u00a0became the official line.[124]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The continued internal struggle in the Bolshevik party culminated in the\u00a0Great Purge<\/a>.[125]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u30111924 \u5e74\u5217\u5b81\u53bb\u4e16\u540e\uff0c\u4e09\u9a7e\u9a6c\u8f66\u88ab\u6307\u5b9a\u63a5\u7ba1\u653f\u6743\u3002\u6700\u7ec8\uff0c\u5171\u4ea7\u515a\u603b\u4e66\u8bb0\u7ea6\u745f\u592b\u00b7\u65af\u5927\u6797\u6210\u529f\u9547\u538b\u4e86\u6240\u6709\u53cd\u5bf9\u6d3e\u522b\uff0c\u5de9\u56fa\u4e86\u81ea\u5df1\u624b\u4e2d\u7684\u6743\u529b\uff0c\u5e76\u5728 20 \u4e16\u7eaa 30 \u5e74\u4ee3\u6210\u4e3a\u56fd\u5bb6\u7684\u72ec\u88c1\u8005\u3002[122]\u00a0\u4e16\u754c\u9769\u547d\u7684\u4e3b\u8981\u652f\u6301\u8005\u5217\u592b\u00b7\u6258\u6d1b\u8328\u57fa\u4e8e 1929 \u5e74\u88ab\u6d41\u653e\u51fa\u82cf\u8054\uff0c[123]\u00a0\u65af\u5927\u6797\u7684\u201c\u4e00\u56fd\u793e\u4f1a\u4e3b\u4e49\u201d\u601d\u60f3\u6210\u4e3a\u5b98\u65b9\u8def\u7ebf\u3002[124]\u00a0\u5e03\u5c14\u4ec0\u7ef4\u514b\u515a\u5185\u6301\u7eed\u7684\u6597\u4e89\u6700\u7ec8\u5bfc\u81f4\u4e86\u5927\u6e05\u6d17\u3002[125]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

2.7.2 \u65af\u5927\u6797\u4e3b\u4e49\u4e0e\u73b0\u4ee3\u5316 | Stalinism and modernisation<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
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\u56fe1-12\uff08\u53d1\u5e03\u4e8e\u77e5\u4e4e\u60f3\u6cd5\uff09<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

Under Stalin’s leadership, the government launched a\u00a0command economy<\/a>,\u00a0industrialisation of the largely rural country<\/a>, and\u00a0collectivisation<\/a>\u00a0of\u00a0its agriculture<\/a>. During this period of rapid economic and social change, millions of people were sent to\u00a0penal labour camps<\/a>, including many political convicts for their suspected or real opposition to Stalin’s rule,[126]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and millions were\u00a0deported and exiled<\/a>\u00a0to remote areas of the Soviet Union.[127]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The transitional disorganisation of the country’s agriculture, combined with the harsh state policies and a drought,[128]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0led to the\u00a0Soviet famine of 1932\u20131933<\/a>, which killed 5.7[129]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0to 8.7 million, 3.3 million of them in the Russian SFSR.[130]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The Soviet Union, ultimately, made the costly transformation from a largely agrarian economy to a major industrial powerhouse within a short span of time.[131]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u5728\u65af\u5927\u6797\u7684\u9886\u5bfc\u4e0b\uff0c\u653f\u5e9c\u63a8\u884c\u4e86\u8ba1\u5212\u7ecf\u6d4e\uff0c\u5b9e\u73b0\u4e86\u4ee5\u519c\u4e1a\u4e3a\u4e3b\u7684\u56fd\u5bb6\u7684\u5de5\u4e1a\u5316\uff0c\u5e76\u5b9e\u73b0\u4e86\u519c\u4e1a\u96c6\u4f53\u5316\u3002\u5728\u8fd9\u4e00\u7ecf\u6d4e\u548c\u793e\u4f1a\u5feb\u901f\u53d8\u9769\u65f6\u671f\uff0c\u6570\u767e\u4e07\u4eba\u88ab\u9001\u5f80\u52b3\u6539\u8425\uff0c\u5176\u4e2d\u5305\u62ec\u8bb8\u591a\u56e0\u6d89\u5acc\u6216\u5b9e\u9645\u53cd\u5bf9\u65af\u5927\u6797\u7edf\u6cbb\u800c\u88ab\u5224\u5904\u653f\u6cbb\u72af[126]\uff0c\u6570\u767e\u4e07\u4eba\u88ab\u9a71\u9010\u51fa\u5883\uff0c\u6d41\u653e\u5230\u82cf\u8054\u504f\u8fdc\u5730\u533a\u3002[127] \u56fd\u5bb6\u519c\u4e1a\u7684\u8fc7\u6e21\u6027\u6df7\u4e71\uff0c\u52a0\u4e0a\u4e25\u5389\u7684\u56fd\u5bb6\u653f\u7b56\u548c\u5e72\u65f1\uff0c[128] \u5bfc\u81f4\u4e861932-1933\u5e74\u7684\u82cf\u8054\u9965\u8352\uff0c\u9020\u6210570\u4e07[129] \u81f3870\u4e07\u4eba\u6b7b\u4ea1\uff0c\u5176\u4e2d330\u4e07\u4eba\u6765\u81ea\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u82cf\u7ef4\u57c3\u8054\u90a6\u793e\u4f1a\u4e3b\u4e49\u5171\u548c\u56fd[130]\u3002\u6700\u7ec8\uff0c\u82cf\u8054\u5728\u77ed\u65f6\u95f4\u5185\u5b8c\u6210\u4e86\u4ee3\u4ef7\u9ad8\u6602\u7684\u8f6c\u578b\uff0c\u4ece\u4e00\u4e2a\u519c\u4e1a\u7ecf\u6d4e\u4f53\u8f6c\u578b\u4e3a\u4e00\u4e2a\u5de5\u4e1a\u5f3a\u56fd\u3002[131]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

2.7.3 \u7b2c\u4e8c\u6b21\u4e16\u754c\u5927\u6218\u4e0e\u8054\u5408\u56fd<\/strong> | World War II and United Nations<\/h4>\n\n\n\n

Main article:\u00a0Soviet Union in World War II<\/a>\u3010\u4e3b\u6761\u76ee\uff1a\u82cf\u8054\u5728\u7b2c\u4e8c\u6b21\u4e16\u754c\u5927\u6218\u4e2d\u7684\u89d2\u8272\u3011<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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\u56fe1-13\u548c1-14\uff08\u53d1\u5e03\u4e8e\u77e5\u4e4e\u60f3\u6cd5\uff09<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

The Soviet Union entered\u00a0World War II<\/a>\u00a0on 17 September 1939 with its\u00a0invasion of Poland<\/a>,[132]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0in accordance with a secret protocol within the\u00a0Molotov\u2013Ribbentrop Pact<\/a>\u00a0with\u00a0Nazi Germany<\/a>.[133]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The Soviet Union later\u00a0invaded Finland<\/a>,[134]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and\u00a0occupied and annexed the Baltic states<\/a>,[135]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0as well as\u00a0parts of Romania<\/a>.[136]<\/a>:\u200a91\u201395\u200a<\/sup>\u00a0On 22 June 1941, Germany\u00a0invaded the Soviet Union<\/a>,[137]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0opening the\u00a0Eastern Front<\/a>, the largest theater of World War\u00a0II.[138]<\/a>:\u200a7\u200a<\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u82cf\u8054\u4e8e1939\u5e749\u670817\u65e5\u52a0\u5165\u7b2c\u4e8c\u6b21\u4e16\u754c\u5927\u6218\uff0c\u5165\u4fb5\u6ce2\u5170\uff0c[132] \u8fd9\u4e00\u884c\u52a8\u662f\u6839\u636e\u4e0e\u7eb3\u7cb9\u5fb7\u56fd\u7b7e\u8ba2\u7684\u300a\u83ab\u6d1b\u6258\u592b\u2014\u91cc\u5bbe\u7279\u6d1b\u752b\u6761\u7ea6\u300b\u4e2d\u7684\u79d8\u5bc6\u8bae\u5b9a\u4e66\u8fdb\u884c\u7684\u3002[133] \u968f\u540e\uff0c\u82cf\u8054\u53c8\u5165\u4fb5\u4e86\u82ac\u5170\uff0c[134] \u5e76\u5360\u9886\u548c\u541e\u5e76\u4e86\u6ce2\u7f57\u7684\u6d77\u4e09\u56fd\uff0c[135] \u4ee5\u53ca\u7f57\u9a6c\u5c3c\u4e9a\u7684\u90e8\u5206\u9886\u571f\u3002[136]:\u200a91\u201395 \u200a1941\u5e746\u670822\u65e5\uff0c\u5fb7\u56fd\u7a81\u7136\u5165\u4fb5\u82cf\u8054\uff0c[137] \u5f00\u8f9f\u4e86\u4e8c\u6218\u4e2d\u89c4\u6a21\u6700\u5927\u7684\u6218\u573a\u2014\u2014\u4e1c\u7ebf\u6218\u573a\u3002[138]:\u200a7\u200a <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Eventually, some 5 million\u00a0Red Army<\/a>\u00a0troops were captured by the Nazis;[139]<\/a>:\u200a272\u200a<\/sup>\u00a0the latter deliberately\u00a0starved to death or otherwise killed<\/a>\u00a03.3\u00a0million Soviet\u00a0POWs<\/a>, and a vast number of civilians, as the “Hunger Plan<\/a>” sought to fulfil\u00a0Generalplan Ost<\/a>.[140]<\/a>:\u200a175\u2013186\u200a<\/sup>\u00a0Although the\u00a0Wehrmacht<\/a>\u00a0had considerable early success, their attack was halted in the\u00a0Battle of Moscow<\/a>.[141]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Subsequently, the Germans were dealt major defeats first at the\u00a0Battle of Stalingrad<\/a>\u00a0in the winter of 1942\u20131943,[142]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and then in the\u00a0Battle of Kursk<\/a>\u00a0in the summer of 1943.[143]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Another German failure was the\u00a0Siege of Leningrad<\/a>, in which the city was fully blockaded on land between 1941 and 1944 by German and Finnish forces, and suffered starvation and more than a million deaths, but never surrendered.[144]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Soviet forces steamrolled through Eastern and Central Europe in 1944\u20131945 and\u00a0captured Berlin<\/a>\u00a0in May 1945.[145]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In August 1945, the Red Army\u00a0invaded Manchuria<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0ousted the Japanese<\/a>\u00a0from Northeast Asia, contributing to the Allied victory over Japan.[146]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u6700\u7ec8\uff0c\u7ea6\u6709500\u4e07\u540d\u7ea2\u519b\u58eb\u5175\u88ab\u7eb3\u7cb9\u4fd8\u864f\uff1b[139]:\u200a272\u200a \u5176\u4e2d330\u4e07\u82cf\u8054\u6218\u4fd8\u88ab\u5fb7\u519b\u6545\u610f\u997f\u6b7b\u6216\u76f4\u63a5\u6740\u5bb3\uff0c\u8fd8\u6709\u5927\u91cf\u5e73\u6c11\u9047\u5bb3\u3002\u8fd9\u4e00\u79cd\u65cf\u706d\u7edd\u8ba1\u5212\u88ab\u79f0\u4e3a\u201c\u9965\u997f\u8ba1\u5212\u201d\uff08Hunger Plan\uff09\uff0c\u662f\u66f4\u5e7f\u6cdb\u7684\u201c\u4e1c\u65b9\u603b\u8ba1\u5212\u201d\uff08Generalplan Ost\uff09\u7684\u4e00\u90e8\u5206\u3002[140]:\u200a175\u2013186 \u200a\u5c3d\u7ba1\u5fb7\u519b\u521d\u671f\u53d6\u5f97\u4e86\u663e\u8457\u80dc\u5229\uff0c\u4f46\u4ed6\u4eec\u7684\u8fdb\u653b\u5728\u83ab\u65af\u79d1\u6218\u5f79<\/strong>\u4e2d\u88ab\u6210\u529f\u963b\u6b62\u3002[141] \u6b64\u540e\uff0c\u82cf\u519b\u5148\u540e\u57281942\u20131943\u5e74\u51ac\u5b63\u7684\u65af\u5927\u6797\u683c\u52d2\u6218\u5f79<\/strong>\u548c1943\u5e74\u590f\u5b63\u7684\u5e93\u5c14\u65af\u514b\u4f1a\u6218<\/strong>\u4e2d\u7ed9\u4e88\u5fb7\u519b\u51b3\u5b9a\u6027\u6253\u51fb\u3002[142][143] \u53e6\u4e00\u4e2a\u8457\u540d\u7684\u6218\u5f79\u662f\u5217\u5b81\u683c\u52d2\u56f4\u57ce\u6218<\/strong>\u3002\u4ece1941\u5e74\u81f31944\u5e74\uff0c\u8fd9\u5ea7\u57ce\u5e02\u88ab\u5fb7\u519b\u548c\u82ac\u519b\u9646\u4e0a\u5305\u56f4\uff0c\u5c45\u6c11\u906d\u53d7\u4e25\u91cd\u9965\u8352\uff0c\u6b7b\u4ea1\u4eba\u6570\u8d85\u8fc7\u4e00\u767e\u4e07\uff0c\u4f46\u57ce\u5e02\u59cb\u7ec8\u672a\u6295\u964d\u3002[144] \u52301944\u20131945\u5e74\uff0c\u82cf\u519b\u6a2a\u626b\u4e1c\u6b27\u548c\u4e2d\u6b27\uff0c\u5e76\u4e8e1945\u5e745\u6708\u653b\u5360\u67cf\u6797\u3002[145] 1945\u5e748\u6708\uff0c\u7ea2\u519b\u5165\u4fb5\u4e2d\u56fd\u4e1c\u5317\uff0c\u9a71\u9010\u65e5\u672c\u519b\u961f\uff0c\u534f\u52a9\u76df\u519b\u6218\u80dc\u65e5\u672c\u3002[146]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The 1941\u20131945 period of World War\u00a0II is known in Russia as the\u00a0Great Patriotic War<\/a>.[147]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The Soviet Union, along with the United States, the United Kingdom and China were considered the Big Four of Allied powers in World War II, and later became the\u00a0Four Policemen<\/a>, which was the foundation of the\u00a0United Nations Security Council<\/a>.[148]<\/a>:\u200a27\u200a<\/sup>\u00a0During the war,\u00a0Soviet civilian and military death were about 26\u201327 million<\/a>,[149]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0accounting for about half of all\u00a0World War\u00a0II casualties<\/a>.[150]<\/a>:\u200a295\u200a<\/sup>\u00a0The\u00a0Soviet economy<\/a>\u00a0and infrastructure suffered massive devastation, which caused the\u00a0Soviet famine of 1946\u20131947<\/a>.[151]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0However, at the expense of a large sacrifice, the Soviet Union emerged as a global superpower.[152]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u5728\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\uff0c1941\u20131945\u5e74\u7684\u6218\u4e89\u88ab\u79f0\u4e3a\u201c\u4f1f\u5927\u7684\u536b\u56fd\u6218\u4e89<\/strong>\u201d\u3002[147] \u82cf\u8054\u4e0e\u7f8e\u56fd\u3001\u82f1\u56fd\u548c\u4e2d\u56fd\u4e00\u8d77\u88ab\u89c6\u4e3a\u4e8c\u6218\u671f\u95f4\u7684\u56db\u5927\u540c\u76df\u56fd\uff0c\u5e76\u540e\u6765\u6210\u4e3a\u201c\u56db\u8b66\u5bdf\u201d\u673a\u5236\uff0c\u4e3a\u8054\u5408\u56fd\u5b89\u5168\u7406\u4e8b\u4f1a\u5960\u5b9a\u4e86\u57fa\u7840\u3002[148]:\u200a27\u200a \u6218\u4e89\u671f\u95f4\uff0c\u82cf\u8054\u7684\u519b\u6c11\u6b7b\u4ea1\u4eba\u6570\u7ea6\u4e3a2600\u4e07\u81f32700\u4e07\u4eba\uff0c[149] \u7ea6\u5360\u6574\u4e2a\u4e8c\u6218\u4f24\u4ea1\u4eba\u6570\u7684\u4e00\u534a\u3002[150]:\u200a295\u200a \u82cf\u8054\u7684\u7ecf\u6d4e\u548c\u57fa\u7840\u8bbe\u65bd\u906d\u5230\u5de8\u5927\u7834\u574f\uff0c\u5bfc\u81f4\u4e861946\u20131947\u5e74\u7684\u82cf\u8054\u5927\u9965\u8352\u3002[151] \u7136\u800c\uff0c\u4ed8\u51fa\u4e86\u5de8\u5927\u727a\u7272\u4e4b\u540e\uff0c\u82cf\u8054\u5d1b\u8d77\u4e3a\u4e00\u4e2a\u5168\u7403\u8d85\u7ea7\u5927\u56fd\u3002[152]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

2.7.4 \u8d85\u7ea7\u5927\u56fd\u4e0e\u51b7\u6218<\/strong> | Superpower and Cold War<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
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\u56fe1-15\uff08\u53d1\u5e03\u4e8e\u77e5\u4e4e\u60f3\u6cd5\uff09<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

After World War II, according to the\u00a0Potsdam Conference<\/a>, the\u00a0Red Army<\/a>\u00a0occupied parts of Eastern and Central Europe, including\u00a0East Germany<\/a>\u00a0and the eastern regions of\u00a0Austria<\/a>.[153]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Dependent communist governments were installed in the\u00a0Eastern Bloc<\/a>\u00a0satellite states.[154]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0After becoming the world’s second\u00a0nuclear power<\/a>,[155]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0the Soviet Union established the\u00a0Warsaw Pact<\/a>\u00a0alliance,[156]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and entered into a struggle for global dominance, known as the\u00a0Cold War<\/a>, with the rivalling United States and\u00a0NATO<\/a>.[157]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u7b2c\u4e8c\u6b21\u4e16\u754c\u5927\u6218\u7ed3\u675f\u540e\uff0c\u6839\u636e\u6ce2\u8328\u5766\u4f1a\u8bae\u7684\u51b3\u5b9a\uff0c\u82cf\u8054\u7ea2\u519b\u5360\u9886\u4e86\u4e1c\u6b27\u548c\u4e2d\u6b27\u7684\u90e8\u5206\u5730\u533a\uff0c\u5305\u62ec\u4e1c\u5fb7\u548c\u5965\u5730\u5229\u4e1c\u90e8\u3002[153] \u5728\u8fd9\u4e9b\u88ab\u79f0\u4e3a\u201c\u4e1c\u6b27\u96c6\u56e2\u201d\u7684\u536b\u661f\u56fd\u4e2d\uff0c\u5efa\u7acb\u4e86\u4eb2\u82cf\u7684\u5171\u4ea7\u515a\u653f\u5e9c\u3002[154] \u5728\u6210\u4e3a\u4e16\u754c\u4e0a\u7b2c\u4e8c\u4e2a\u62e5\u6709\u6838\u6b66\u5668\u7684\u56fd\u5bb6\u540e\uff0c[155] \u82cf\u8054\u6210\u7acb\u4e86\u201c\u534e\u6c99\u6761\u7ea6\u7ec4\u7ec7\u201d\u8fd9\u4e00\u519b\u4e8b\u540c\u76df\uff0c[156] \u5e76\u4e0e\u7f8e\u56fd\u53ca\u5176\u9886\u5bfc\u7684\u5317\u7ea6\u5c55\u5f00\u4e86\u4e00\u573a\u5168\u7403\u8303\u56f4\u5185\u7684\u5bf9\u5cd9\uff0c\u8fd9\u573a\u957f\u8fbe\u6570\u5341\u5e74\u7684\u7d27\u5f20\u5c40\u52bf\u88ab\u79f0\u4e3a\u201c\u51b7\u6218\u201d\u3002[157]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

2.7.5 \u8d6b\u9c81\u6653\u592b\u89e3\u51bb\u6539\u9769\u4e0e\u7ecf\u6d4e\u53d1\u5c55<\/strong> | Khrushchev Thaw reforms and economic development<\/h4>\n\n\n\n

After\u00a0Stalin’s death<\/a>\u00a0in 1953 and a short period of\u00a0collective rule<\/a>, the new leader\u00a0Nikita Khrushchev<\/a>\u00a0denounced\u00a0Stalin<\/a>\u00a0and launched the policy of\u00a0de-Stalinization<\/a>, releasing many political prisoners from the\u00a0Gulag<\/a>\u00a0labour camps.[158]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The general easement of repressive policies became known later as the\u00a0Khrushchev Thaw<\/a>.[159]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0At the same time, Cold War tensions reached its peak when the two rivals clashed over the deployment of the United States\u00a0Jupiter missiles<\/a>\u00a0in Turkey and Soviet\u00a0missiles in Cuba<\/a>.[160]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u30111953\u5e74\u65af\u5927\u6797\u53bb\u4e16\u540e\uff0c\u7ecf\u8fc7\u4e00\u6bb5\u77ed\u6682\u7684\u96c6\u4f53\u9886\u5bfc\u65f6\u671f\uff0c\u65b0\u9886\u5bfc\u4eba\u5c3c\u57fa\u5854\u00b7\u8d6b\u9c81\u6653\u592b\u5f00\u59cb\u6279\u5224\u65af\u5927\u6797\uff0c\u5e76\u542f\u52a8\u4e86\u975e\u65af\u5927\u6797\u5316\u7684\u653f\u7b56\uff0c\u91ca\u653e\u4e86\u53e4\u62c9\u683c\u52b3\u6539\u8425\u4e2d\u7684\u8bb8\u591a\u653f\u6cbb\u72af\u3002[158] \u4e00\u822c\u800c\u8a00\uff0c\u5bf9\u538b\u6291\u653f\u7b56\u7684\u653e\u5bbd\u540e\u6765\u88ab\u79f0\u4e3a\u201c\u8d6b\u9c81\u6653\u592b\u89e3\u51bb\u201d\u3002[159] \u540c\u65f6\uff0c\u51b7\u6218\u7d27\u5f20\u5c40\u52bf\u5728\u4e24\u56fd\u56e0\u7f8e\u56fd\u5728\u571f\u8033\u5176\u90e8\u7f72\u6728\u661f\u5bfc\u5f39\u548c\u82cf\u8054\u5728\u53e4\u5df4\u90e8\u7f72\u5bfc\u5f39\u7684\u95ee\u9898\u4e0a\u53d1\u751f\u51b2\u7a81\u65f6\u8fbe\u5230\u4e86\u9876\u70b9\u3002[160]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the world’s first artificial\u00a0satellite<\/a>,\u00a0Sputnik\u00a01<\/a><\/em>, thus starting the\u00a0Space Age<\/a>.[161]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Russian\u00a0cosmonaut<\/a>\u00a0Yuri Gagarin<\/a>\u00a0became the first human to orbit the Earth, aboard the\u00a0Vostok\u00a01<\/a><\/em>\u00a0crewed spacecraft on\u00a012 April 1961<\/a>.[162]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u30111957\u5e74\uff0c\u82cf\u8054\u53d1\u5c04\u4e86\u4e16\u754c\u4e0a\u7b2c\u4e00\u4e2a\u4eba\u9020\u536b\u661f\u2014\u2014\u65af\u666e\u7279\u5c3c\u514b1\u53f7\uff0c\u5f00\u542f\u4e86\u592a\u7a7a\u65f6\u4ee3\u3002[161] 1961\u5e744\u670812\u65e5\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5b87\u822a\u5458\u5c24\u91cc\u00b7\u52a0\u52a0\u6797\u4e58\u5750\u4e1c\u65b91\u53f7\u8f7d\u4eba\u98de\u8239\u6210\u4e3a\u7b2c\u4e00\u4e2a\u7ed5\u5730\u7403\u8f68\u9053\u98de\u884c\u7684\u4eba\u7c7b\u3002[162] \u8fd9\u4e9b\u6210\u5c31\u4e0d\u4ec5\u6807\u5fd7\u7740\u82cf\u8054\u5728\u592a\u7a7a\u7ade\u8d5b\u4e2d\u7684\u9886\u5148\u5730\u4f4d\uff0c\u4e5f\u4f53\u73b0\u4e86\u8d6b\u9c81\u6653\u592b\u65f6\u671f\u82cf\u8054\u79d1\u6280\u4e0e\u7ecf\u6d4e\u53d1\u5c55\u7684\u6210\u679c\u3002<\/p>\n\n\n\n

2.7.6 \u53d1\u8fbe\u793e\u4f1a\u4e3b\u4e49\u65f6\u671f\u6216\u505c\u6ede\u65f6\u4ee3<\/strong> | Period of developed socialism or Era of Stagnation<\/h4>\n\n\n\n

Following the ousting of Khrushchev in 1964, another period of\u00a0collective rule<\/a>\u00a0ensued, until\u00a0Leonid Brezhnev<\/a>\u00a0became the leader. The era of the 1970s and the early 1980s was later designated as the\u00a0Era of Stagnation<\/a>. The 1965\u00a0Kosygin reform<\/a>\u00a0aimed for partial\u00a0decentralisation<\/a>\u00a0of the\u00a0Soviet economy<\/a>.[163]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In 1979, after a\u00a0communist-led revolution<\/a>\u00a0in Afghanistan, Soviet forces invaded the country, ultimately starting the\u00a0Soviet\u2013Afghan War<\/a>.[164]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In May 1988, the\u00a0Soviets started to withdraw from Afghanistan<\/a>, due to international opposition, persistent anti-Soviet guerrilla warfare, and a lack of support by Soviet citizens.[165]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u30111964\u5e74\u8d6b\u9c81\u6653\u592b\u88ab\u7f62\u514d\u540e\uff0c\u82cf\u8054\u8fdb\u5165\u4e86\u4e00\u6bb5\u77ed\u6682\u7684\u96c6\u4f53\u9886\u5bfc\u65f6\u671f\uff0c\u76f4\u5230\u5217\u6602\u5c3c\u5fb7\u00b7\u52c3\u5217\u65e5\u6d85\u592b\u6210\u4e3a\u6700\u9ad8\u9886\u5bfc\u4eba\u300220\u4e16\u7eaa70\u5e74\u4ee3\u81f380\u5e74\u4ee3\u521d\u7684\u8fd9\u4e00\u65f6\u671f\uff0c\u540e\u6765\u88ab\u79f0\u4e3a\u201c\u505c\u6ede\u65f6\u4ee3\u201d\u30021965\u5e74\uff0c\u67ef\u897f\u91d1\u6539\u9769\u65e8\u5728\u5bf9\u82cf\u8054\u7ecf\u6d4e\u8fdb\u884c\u90e8\u5206\u53bb\u4e2d\u592e\u5316\u8c03\u6574\uff0c\u4ee5\u63d0\u9ad8\u6548\u7387\u548c\u751f\u4ea7\u529b\u3002[163] \u7136\u800c\uff0c\u8fd9\u4e00\u6539\u9769\u672a\u80fd\u4ece\u6839\u672c\u4e0a\u6539\u53d8\u82cf\u8054\u8ba1\u5212\u7ecf\u6d4e\u4f53\u5236\u7684\u50f5\u5316\u95ee\u9898\u30021979\u5e74\uff0c\u5728\u963f\u5bcc\u6c57\u53d1\u751f\u7531\u5171\u4ea7\u515a\u9886\u5bfc\u7684\u9769\u547d\u540e\uff0c\u82cf\u8054\u519b\u961f\u5165\u4fb5\u8be5\u56fd\uff0c\u7531\u6b64\u5f15\u53d1\u4e86\u957f\u8fbe\u8fd1\u5341\u5e74\u7684\u82cf\u963f\u6218\u4e89\u3002[164] \u7531\u4e8e\u56fd\u9645\u793e\u4f1a\u7684\u5f3a\u70c8\u53cd\u5bf9\u3001\u963f\u5bcc\u6c57\u5883\u5185\u6301\u7eed\u4e0d\u65ad\u7684\u53cd\u82cf\u6e38\u51fb\u6218\uff0c\u4ee5\u53ca\u82cf\u8054\u56fd\u5185\u6c11\u4f17\u5bf9\u8be5\u6218\u4e89\u7f3a\u4e4f\u652f\u6301\uff0c\u82cf\u8054\u4e8e1988\u5e745\u6708\u5f00\u59cb\u4ece\u963f\u5bcc\u6c57\u64a4\u519b\u3002[165]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

2.7.7 \u6539\u9769\u3001\u6c11\u4e3b\u5316\u4e0e\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u4e3b\u6743<\/strong> | Perestroika, democratisation and Russian sovereignty<\/strong><\/h4>\n\n\n\n
\n
\u56fe1-16\uff08\u53d1\u5e03\u4e8e\u77e5\u4e4e\u60f3\u6cd5\uff09<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

From 1985 onwards, the last Soviet leader\u00a0Mikhail Gorbachev<\/a>, who sought to enact liberal reforms in the Soviet system, introduced the policies of\u00a0glasnost<\/a><\/em>\u00a0(openness) and\u00a0perestroika<\/a><\/em>\u00a0(restructuring) in an attempt to end the\u00a0period of economic stagnation<\/a>\u00a0and to\u00a0democratise the government<\/a>.[166]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0This, however, led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements across the country.[167]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Prior to 1991, the Soviet economy was the world’s second-largest, but during its final years, it went into a crisis.[168]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u4ece1985\u5e74\u5f00\u59cb\uff0c\u82cf\u8054\u6700\u540e\u4e00\u4f4d\u9886\u5bfc\u4eba\u7c73\u54c8\u4f0a\u5c14\u00b7\u6208\u5c14\u5df4\u4e54\u592b\u8bd5\u56fe\u5bf9\u82cf\u8054\u4f53\u5236\u5b9e\u65bd\u81ea\u7531\u5316\u6539\u9769\uff0c\u63a8\u51fa\u4e86\u201c Glasnost\u201d\uff08\u516c\u5f00\u6027\uff09\u548c\u201c Perestroika\u201d\uff08\u91cd\u5efa\uff09\u653f\u7b56\uff0c\u65e8\u5728\u7ed3\u675f\u7ecf\u6d4e\u505c\u6ede\uff0c\u5e76\u5b9e\u73b0\u653f\u5e9c\u7684\u6c11\u4e3b\u5316\u3002[166] \u7136\u800c\uff0c\u8fd9\u5bfc\u81f4\u4e86\u5168\u56fd\u8303\u56f4\u5185\u5f3a\u70c8\u7684\u6c11\u65cf\u4e3b\u4e49\u548c\u5206\u79bb\u4e3b\u4e49\u8fd0\u52a8\u7684\u5174\u8d77\u3002[167] \u57281991\u5e74\u4e4b\u524d\uff0c\u82cf\u8054\u7ecf\u6d4e\u662f\u4e16\u754c\u7b2c\u4e8c\u5927\u7ecf\u6d4e\u4f53\uff0c\u4f46\u5728\u5176\u6700\u540e\u51e0\u5e74\u4e2d\u9677\u5165\u4e86\u5371\u673a\u3002[168]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

By 1991, economic and political turmoil began to boil over as the\u00a0Baltic states<\/a>\u00a0chose to secede from the Soviet Union.[169]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0On 17 March, a\u00a0referendum<\/a>\u00a0was held, in which the vast majority of participating citizens voted in favour of changing the Soviet Union into a\u00a0renewed federation<\/a>.[170]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In June 1991,\u00a0Boris Yeltsin<\/a>\u00a0became the first directly elected\u00a0President<\/a>\u00a0in Russian history when he was\u00a0elected<\/a>\u00a0President of the Russian SFSR.[171]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In August 1991,\u00a0a coup d’\u00e9tat attempt<\/a>\u00a0by members of Gorbachev’s government, directed against Gorbachev and aimed at preserving the Soviet Union, instead led to the end of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.[172]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0On 25 December 1991, following the\u00a0dissolution of the Soviet Union<\/a>, along with contemporary Russia, fourteen other\u00a0post-Soviet states<\/a>\u00a0emerged.[173]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u52301991\u5e74\uff0c\u968f\u7740\u6ce2\u7f57\u7684\u6d77\u56fd\u5bb6\u9009\u62e9\u8131\u79bb\u82cf\u8054\uff0c\u7ecf\u6d4e\u548c\u653f\u6cbb\u52a8\u8361\u5f00\u59cb\u52a0\u5267\u3002[169] 1991\u5e743\u670817\u65e5\u4e3e\u884c\u4e86\u4e00\u6b21\u5168\u6c11\u516c\u6295\uff0c\u7edd\u5927\u591a\u6570\u53c2\u4e0e\u6295\u7968\u7684\u516c\u6c11\u652f\u6301\u5c06\u82cf\u8054\u6539\u7ec4\u4e3a\u4e00\u4e2a\u65b0\u7684\u8054\u90a6\u3002[170] 1991\u5e746\u6708\uff0c\u9c8d\u91cc\u65af\u00b7\u53f6\u5229\u94a6\u6210\u4e3a\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5386\u53f2\u4e0a\u9996\u4f4d\u76f4\u63a5\u9009\u4e3e\u4ea7\u751f\u7684\u603b\u7edf\uff0c\u5f53\u9009\u4e3a\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u82cf\u7ef4\u57c3\u8054\u90a6\u793e\u4f1a\u4e3b\u4e49\u5171\u548c\u56fd\u603b\u7edf\u3002[171]1991\u5e748\u6708\uff0c\u7531\u6208\u5c14\u5df4\u4e54\u592b\u653f\u5e9c\u6210\u5458\u53d1\u52a8\u7684\u4e00\u573a\u653f\u53d8\u4f01\u56fe\u63a8\u7ffb\u6208\u5c14\u5df4\u4e54\u592b\u5e76\u8bd5\u56fe\u4fdd\u7559\u82cf\u8054\uff0c\u7ed3\u679c\u5374\u5bfc\u81f4\u4e86\u82cf\u8054\u5171\u4ea7\u515a\u89e3\u4f53\u3002[172] 1991\u5e7412\u670825\u65e5\uff0c\u5728\u82cf\u8054\u89e3\u4f53\u4e4b\u540e\uff0c\u9664\u4e86\u5f53\u4ee3\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\uff0c\u8fd8\u6709\u5176\u4ed6\u5341\u56db\u4e2a\u540e\u82cf\u8054\u56fd\u5bb6\u4e5f\u5e94\u8fd0\u800c\u751f\u3002[173] \u8fd9\u6807\u5fd7\u7740\u82cf\u8054\u65f6\u4ee3\u7684\u7ec8\u7ed3\u4ee5\u53ca\u65b0\u72ec\u7acb\u56fd\u5bb6\u7684\u8bde\u751f\u3002<\/p>\n\n\n\n

2.8 \u72ec\u7acb\u7684\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u8054\u90a6 | Independent Russian Federation<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Main article:\u00a0History of Russia (1991\u2013present)<\/a>\u3010\u4e3b\u6761\u76ee\uff1a1991\u5e74\u81f3\u4eca\u7684\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5386\u53f2\u3011<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Further information:\u00a0Presidency of Boris Yeltsin<\/a>,\u00a0Russia under Vladimir Putin<\/a>, and\u00a0Presidency of Dmitry Medvedev<\/a><\/em>
\u3010\u8fdb\u4e00\u6b65\u4fe1\u606f\uff1a\u9c8d\u91cc\u65af\u00b7\u53f6\u5229\u94a6\u7684\u603b\u7edf\u4efb\u671f\u3001\u5f17\u62c9\u57fa\u7c73\u5c14\u00b7\u666e\u4eac\u9886\u5bfc\u4e0b\u7684\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u3001\u5fb7\u7c73\u7279\u91cc\u00b7\u6885\u5fb7\u97e6\u6770\u592b\u7684\u603b\u7edf\u4efb\u671f\u3011<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

2.8.1 \u5411\u5e02\u573a\u7ecf\u6d4e\u8f6c\u578b\u4e0e\u653f\u6cbb\u5371\u673a | Transition to a market economy and political crises<\/strong><\/h4>\n\n\n\n
\n
\u56fe2-1\uff08\u53d1\u5e03\u4e8e\u77e5\u4e4e\u60f3\u6cd5\uff09<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

The economic and political collapse of the Soviet Union led Russia into a deep and prolonged depression. During and after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, wide-ranging reforms including\u00a0privatisation<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0market and trade liberalisation<\/a>\u00a0were undertaken, including radical changes along the lines of “shock therapy<\/a>“.[174]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The privatisation largely shifted control of enterprises from state agencies to individuals with inside connections in the government, which led to the rise of\u00a0Russian oligarchs<\/a>.[175]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Many of the newly rich moved billions in cash and assets outside of the country in an enormous\u00a0capital flight<\/a>.[176]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The depression of the economy led to the collapse of social services\u2014the\u00a0birth rate<\/a>\u00a0plummeted while the\u00a0death rate<\/a>\u00a0skyrocketed,[177]<\/a>[178]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and millions plunged into poverty,[179]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0while extreme corruption,[180]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0as well as criminal gangs and organised crime rose significantly.[181]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u82cf\u8054\u7684\u7ecf\u6d4e\u548c\u653f\u6cbb\u5d29\u6e83\u4f7f\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u9677\u5165\u4e86\u4e00\u573a\u6df1\u523b\u800c\u6f2b\u957f\u7684\u7ecf\u6d4e\u8427\u6761\u3002\u5728\u82cf\u8054\u89e3\u4f53\u671f\u95f4\u53ca\u4e4b\u540e\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u8fdb\u884c\u4e86\u5e7f\u6cdb\u7684\u7ecf\u6d4e\u6539\u9769\uff0c\u5305\u62ec\u79c1\u6709\u5316\u4ee5\u53ca\u5e02\u573a\u548c\u8d38\u6613\u81ea\u7531\u5316\uff0c\u5176\u4e2d\u8bb8\u591a\u6539\u9769\u91c7\u53d6\u4e86\u4ee5\u201c\u4f11\u514b\u7597\u6cd5\u201d\u4e3a\u7279\u5f81\u7684\u6fc0\u8fdb\u63aa\u65bd\u3002[174] \u8fd9\u573a\u79c1\u6709\u5316\u8fc7\u7a0b\u4e3b\u8981\u5c06\u4f01\u4e1a\u7684\u63a7\u5236\u6743\u4ece\u56fd\u5bb6\u673a\u6784\u8f6c\u79fb\u5230\u4e0e\u653f\u5e9c\u5185\u90e8\u6709\u5bc6\u5207\u5173\u7cfb\u7684\u4e2a\u4eba\u624b\u4e2d\uff0c\u7531\u6b64\u50ac\u751f\u4e86\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u7684\u5be1\u5934\u9636\u5c42\u3002[175] \u8bb8\u591a\u65b0\u8d35\u5c06\u6570\u5341\u4ebf\u7f8e\u5143\u7684\u8d44\u91d1\u548c\u8d44\u4ea7\u8f6c\u79fb\u81f3\u6d77\u5916\uff0c\u5f62\u6210\u4e86\u5927\u89c4\u6a21\u7684\u8d44\u672c\u5916\u9003\u3002[176]\u7ecf\u6d4e\u7684\u8870\u9000\u5bfc\u81f4\u793e\u4f1a\u670d\u52a1\u4f53\u7cfb\u5d29\u6e83\uff0c\u51fa\u751f\u7387\u6025\u5267\u4e0b\u964d\uff0c\u6b7b\u4ea1\u7387\u5219\u8fc5\u901f\u4e0a\u5347\uff0c[177][178] \u6570\u4ee5\u767e\u4e07\u8ba1\u7684\u4eba\u9677\u5165\u8d2b\u56f0\u3002[179] \u540c\u65f6\uff0c\u8150\u8d25\u73b0\u8c61\u6781\u5176\u4e25\u91cd\uff0c[180] \u9ed1\u5e2e\u52bf\u529b\u548c\u6709\u7ec4\u7ec7\u72af\u7f6a\u4e5f\u5927\u5e45\u589e\u52a0\u3002[181]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In late 1993, tensions between Yeltsin and the Russian parliament culminated in\u00a0a constitutional crisis<\/a>\u00a0which ended violently through military force. During the crisis, Yeltsin was backed by Western governments, and over 100 people were killed.[182]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u30111993\u5e74\u665a\u4e9b\u65f6\u5019\uff0c\u53f6\u5229\u94a6\u4e0e\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u8bae\u4f1a\u4e4b\u95f4\u7684\u7d27\u5f20\u5173\u7cfb\u6700\u7ec8\u6f14\u53d8\u6210\u4e00\u573a\u5baa\u6cd5\u5371\u673a\uff0c\u5e76\u4ee5\u519b\u4e8b\u624b\u6bb5\u66b4\u529b\u6536\u573a\u3002\u5728\u6b64\u6b21\u5371\u673a\u4e2d\uff0c\u53f6\u5229\u94a6\u5f97\u5230\u4e86\u897f\u65b9\u653f\u5e9c\u7684\u652f\u6301\uff0c\u4e8b\u4ef6\u4e2d\u5171\u9020\u6210\u8d85\u8fc7\u767e\u4eba\u6b7b\u4ea1\u3002[182]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

2.8.2 \u73b0\u4ee3\u81ea\u7531\u5baa\u6cd5\u3001\u56fd\u9645\u5408\u4f5c\u4e0e\u7ecf\u6d4e\u7a33\u5b9a<\/strong> | Modern liberal constitution, international cooperation and economic stabilisation<\/h4>\n\n\n\n

In December, a\u00a0referendum<\/a>\u00a0was held and approved, which introduced a new constitution, giving the president enormous powers.[183]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The 1990s were plagued by armed conflicts in the\u00a0North Caucasus<\/a>, both local ethnic skirmishes and separatist\u00a0Islamist<\/a>\u00a0insurrections.[184]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0From the time\u00a0Chechen<\/a>\u00a0separatists declared independence in the early 1990s, an\u00a0intermittent guerrilla war<\/a>\u00a0was fought between the rebel groups and Russian forces.[185]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Terrorist attacks against civilians<\/a>\u00a0were carried out by Chechen separatists, claiming the lives of thousands of Russian civilians.[Most notably the\u00a0Budyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis, the\u00a0Russian apartment bombings, the\u00a0Moscow theater hostage crisis, and the\u00a0Beslan school siege][186]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u30111993\u5e7412\u6708\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u4e3e\u884c\u5168\u6c11\u516c\u6295\u5e76\u901a\u8fc7\u4e86\u65b0\u5baa\u6cd5\uff0c\u8fd9\u90e8\u5baa\u6cd5\u8d4b\u4e88\u603b\u7edf\u6781\u5927\u7684\u6743\u529b\u3002[183] 1990\u5e74\u4ee3\uff0c\u5317\u9ad8\u52a0\u7d22\u5730\u533a\u51b2\u7a81\u4e0d\u65ad\uff0c\u65e2\u6709\u5730\u65b9\u6c11\u65cf\u95f4\u7684\u6469\u64e6\uff0c\u4e5f\u6709\u4f0a\u65af\u5170\u5206\u79bb\u4e3b\u4e49\u52bf\u529b\u7684\u6b66\u88c5\u53db\u4e71\u3002[184] \u81ea\u8f66\u81e3\u5206\u79bb\u4e3b\u4e49\u8005\u57281990\u5e74\u4ee3\u521d\u5ba3\u5e03\u72ec\u7acb\u4ee5\u6765\uff0c\u53cd\u653f\u5e9c\u6b66\u88c5\u4e0e\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u519b\u961f\u4e4b\u95f4\u4fbf\u5c55\u5f00\u4e86\u65ad\u65ad\u7eed\u7eed\u7684\u6e38\u51fb\u6218\u3002[185] \u8f66\u81e3\u5206\u79bb\u4e3b\u4e49\u8005\u8fd8\u5bf9\u5e73\u6c11\u53d1\u52a8\u6050\u6016\u88ad\u51fb\uff0c\u9020\u6210\u6570\u5343\u540d\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u516c\u6c11\u4e27\u751f\u3002[\u6700\u8457\u540d\u7684\u662f\u5e03\u743c\u8bfa\u592b\u65af\u514b\u533b\u9662\u4eba\u8d28\u5371\u673a\u3001\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u516c\u5bd3\u7206\u70b8\u6848\u3001\u83ab\u65af\u79d1\u5267\u9662\u4eba\u8d28\u5371\u673a\u548c\u522b\u65af\u5170\u5b66\u6821\u4eba\u8d28\u4e8b\u4ef6]<\/sup>[186]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia assumed responsibility for settling the latter’s external debts.[187]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In 1992, most consumer price controls were eliminated, causing extreme inflation and significantly devaluing the rouble.[188]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0High budget deficits coupled with increasing capital flight and inability to pay back debts, caused the\u00a01998 Russian financial crisis<\/a>, which resulted in a further GDP decline.[189]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u82cf\u8054\u89e3\u4f53\u540e\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u627f\u62c5\u4e86\u524d\u82cf\u8054\u9057\u7559\u4e0b\u6765\u7684\u5916\u503a\u507f\u8fd8\u8d23\u4efb\u3002[187] 1992\u5e74\uff0c\u5927\u591a\u6570\u6d88\u8d39\u54c1\u7684\u4ef7\u683c\u7ba1\u5236\u88ab\u53d6\u6d88\uff0c\u5bfc\u81f4\u901a\u8d27\u81a8\u80c0\u98d9\u5347\uff0c\u5362\u5e03\u5927\u5e45\u8d2c\u503c\u3002[188] \u9ad8\u989d\u7684\u8d22\u653f\u8d64\u5b57\u3001\u65e5\u76ca\u52a0\u5267\u7684\u8d44\u672c\u5916\u9003\u4ee5\u53ca\u65e0\u529b\u507f\u8fd8\u503a\u52a1\uff0c\u6700\u7ec8\u5f15\u53d1\u4e861998\u5e74\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u91d1\u878d\u5371\u673a\uff0c\u8fdb\u4e00\u6b65\u5bfc\u81f4\u56fd\u5185\u751f\u4ea7\u603b\u503c\uff08GDP\uff09\u4e0b\u6ed1\u3002[189]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

2.8.3 \u8fc8\u5411\u73b0\u4ee3\u5316\u7ecf\u6d4e\u3001\u653f\u6cbb\u96c6\u6743\u4e0e\u6c11\u4e3b\u5012\u9000<\/strong> | Movement towards a modernised economy, political centralisation and democratic backsliding<\/h4>\n\n\n\n

Further information:\u00a0Putinism<\/a>\u3010\u66f4\u591a\u4fe1\u606f\uff1a\u666e\u4eac\u4e3b\u4e49\u3011<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

On 31 December 1999, President Yeltsin unexpectedly resigned,[190]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0handing the post to the recently appointed prime minister and his chosen successor,\u00a0Vladimir Putin<\/a>.[191]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Putin then won the\u00a02000 presidential election<\/a>,[192]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and defeated the Chechen insurgency in the\u00a0Second Chechen War<\/a>.[193]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u30111999\u5e7412\u670831\u65e5\uff0c\u603b\u7edf\u53f6\u5229\u94a6\u51fa\u4eba\u610f\u6599\u5730\u5ba3\u5e03\u8f9e\u804c\uff0c[190] \u5c06\u603b\u7edf\u804c\u4f4d\u79fb\u4ea4\u7ed9\u65f6\u4efb\u603b\u7406\u3001\u5176\u6307\u5b9a\u7684\u7ee7\u4efb\u8005\u5f17\u62c9\u57fa\u7c73\u5c14\u00b7\u666e\u4eac\u3002[191] \u968f\u540e\uff0c\u666e\u4eac\u8d62\u5f97\u4e862000\u5e74\u7684\u603b\u7edf\u5927\u9009\uff0c[192] \u5e76\u5728\u7b2c\u4e8c\u6b21\u8f66\u81e3\u6218\u4e89\u4e2d\u51fb\u8d25\u4e86\u8f66\u81e3\u53db\u519b\uff0c\u7a33\u5b9a\u4e86\u56fd\u5185\u5c40\u52bf\u3002[193]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Putin won a\u00a0second presidential term<\/a>\u00a0in 2004.[194]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0High oil prices<\/a>\u00a0and a rise in foreign investment saw the\u00a0Russian economy<\/a>\u00a0and living standards improve significantly.[195]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Putin’s rule increased stability, while transforming Russia into an\u00a0authoritarian state<\/a>.[196]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In 2008, Putin took the post of prime minister, while\u00a0Dmitry Medvedev<\/a>\u00a0was\u00a0elected President<\/a>\u00a0for one term, to hold onto power despite legal\u00a0term limits<\/a>;[197]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0this period has been described as a “tandemocracy<\/a>“.[198]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u30112004\u5e74\uff0c\u666e\u4eac\u6210\u529f\u8d62\u5f97\u7b2c\u4e8c\u4e2a\u603b\u7edf\u4efb\u671f\u3002[194] \u5728\u6b64\u671f\u95f4\uff0c\u6cb9\u4ef7\u9ad8\u6da8\u548c\u5916\u56fd\u6295\u8d44\u589e\u52a0\u663e\u8457\u63a8\u52a8\u4e86\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u7ecf\u6d4e\u53d1\u5c55\uff0c\u4eba\u6c11\u751f\u6d3b\u6c34\u5e73\u5927\u5e45\u63d0\u5347\u3002[195] \u666e\u4eac\u7684\u7edf\u6cbb\u5e26\u6765\u4e86\u793e\u4f1a\u7a33\u5b9a\uff0c\u4f46\u540c\u65f6\u4e5f\u4f7f\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u9010\u6e10\u8f6c\u53d8\u4e3a\u4e00\u4e2a\u5a01\u6743\u56fd\u5bb6\u3002[196]2008\u5e74\uff0c\u666e\u4eac\u4f9d\u7167\u6cd5\u5f8b\u4e0d\u5f97\u8fde\u4efb\u603b\u7edf\uff0c\u4ed6\u8f6c\u800c\u62c5\u4efb\u603b\u7406\u804c\u52a1\uff0c\u540c\u65f6\u652f\u6301\u5fb7\u7c73\u7279\u91cc\u00b7\u6885\u5fb7\u97e6\u6770\u592b\u5f53\u9009\u603b\u7edf\uff0c\u5b8c\u6210\u4e86\u4e00\u6b21\u6743\u529b\u5b89\u6392\u4e0a\u7684\u201c\u6362\u4f4d\u201d\u3002[197] \u8fd9\u4e00\u65f6\u671f\u88ab\u5916\u754c\u79f0\u4e3a\u201c\u53cc\u5934\u6267\u653f\u201d\uff08tandemocracy\uff09\u3002[198]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Following a\u00a0diplomatic crisis<\/a>\u00a0with neighbouring\u00a0Georgia<\/a>, the\u00a0Russo-Georgian War<\/a>\u00a0took place during 1\u201312 August 2008, resulting in Russia recognising two separatist states in the territories that it\u00a0occupies in Georgia<\/a>.[199]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0It was the first\u00a0European war<\/a>\u00a0of the 21st century.[200]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The\u00a02008 constitutional amendments<\/a>\u00a0saw the terms of the president extend to six years and the lower house (State Duma) to five years.[201]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Putin then went on to win the\u00a02012 presidential election<\/a>, which fueled the “Snow Revolution<\/a>” protests.[202]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u5728\u4e0e\u90bb\u56fd\u683c\u9c81\u5409\u4e9a\u53d1\u751f\u5916\u4ea4\u5371\u673a\u540e\uff0c2008 \u5e74 8 \u6708 1 \u65e5\u81f3 12 \u65e5\u7206\u53d1\u4e86\u4fc4\u683c\u6218\u4e89\uff0c\u5bfc\u81f4\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u627f\u8ba4\u5176\u5360\u9886\u7684\u683c\u9c81\u5409\u4e9a\u9886\u571f\u4e0a\u6709\u4e24\u4e2a\u5206\u79bb\u4e3b\u4e49\u56fd\u5bb6\u3002[199] \u8fd9\u662f 21 \u4e16\u7eaa\u7684\u7b2c\u4e00\u6b21\u6b27\u6d32\u6218\u4e89\u3002[200] 2008 \u5e74\u5baa\u6cd5\u4fee\u6b63\u6848\u5c06\u603b\u7edf\u4efb\u671f\u5ef6\u957f\u81f3 6 \u5e74\uff0c\u4e0b\u8bae\u9662\uff08\u56fd\u5bb6\u675c\u9a6c\uff09\u4efb\u671f\u5ef6\u957f\u81f3 5 \u5e74\u3002[201] \u666e\u4eac\u968f\u540e\u8d62\u5f97 2012 \u5e74\u603b\u7edf\u5927\u9009\uff0c\u8fd9\u5f15\u53d1\u4e86\u201c\u96ea\u5730\u9769\u547d\u201d\u6297\u8bae\u6d3b\u52a8\u3002[202]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

2.8.4 \u5165\u4fb5\u4e4c\u514b\u5170 | Invasion of Ukraine<\/h4>\n\n\n\n

Main article:\u00a0Russian invasion of Ukraine<\/a>\u3010\u4e3b\u6761\u76ee\uff1a\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5165\u4fb5\u4e4c\u514b\u5170\u3011<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\n
\u56fe2-2\uff08\u53d1\u5e03\u4e8e\u77e5\u4e4e\u60f3\u6cd5\uff09<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

In early 2014, following\u00a0a pro-Western revolution<\/a>\u00a0in neighbouring Ukraine, Russia\u00a0annexed Crimea<\/a>\u00a0after a\u00a0disputed referendum<\/a>\u00a0on the status of Crimea was staged under\u00a0Russian occupation<\/a>.[203]<\/a>[204]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The annexation generated an insurgency in the\u00a0Donbas<\/a>\u00a0region of Ukraine, supported by Russian military intervention as part of\u00a0an undeclared war against Ukraine<\/a>.[205]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Russian mercenaries and military forces, with the support of local separatist militias, waged a\u00a0war in eastern Ukraine<\/a>\u00a0against the new Ukrainian government after the Russian government fostered anti-government and\u00a0pro-Russian protests<\/a>\u00a0in the region,[206]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0although most residents had opposed secession from Ukraine.[207]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Amidst\u00a0nationwide protests against corruption<\/a>,[208]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Putin was re-elected for his second consecutive term in the\u00a02018 presidential election<\/a>.[209]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u30112014 \u5e74\u521d\uff0c\u90bb\u56fd\u4e4c\u514b\u5170\u7206\u53d1\u4eb2\u897f\u65b9\u9769\u547d\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5360\u9886\u4e0b\u5c31\u514b\u91cc\u7c73\u4e9a\u7684\u5730\u4f4d\u4e3e\u884c\u4e86\u6709\u4e89\u8bae\u7684\u5168\u6c11\u516c\u6295\uff0c\u968f\u540e\u541e\u5e76\u4e86\u514b\u91cc\u7c73\u4e9a\u3002[203][204]\u00a0\u541e\u5e76\u514b\u91cc\u7c73\u4e9a\u5f15\u53d1\u4e86\u4e4c\u514b\u5170\u987f\u5df4\u65af\u5730\u533a\u7684\u53db\u4e71\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u7684\u519b\u4e8b\u5e72\u9884\u662f\u9488\u5bf9\u4e4c\u514b\u5170\u4e0d\u5ba3\u800c\u6218\u7684\u4e00\u90e8\u5206\uff0c\u4e5f\u4e3a\u8be5\u5730\u533a\u5e26\u6765\u4e86\u652f\u6301\u3002[205]\u00a0\u5728\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u653f\u5e9c\u5728\u4e4c\u514b\u5170\u4e1c\u90e8\u5730\u533a\u717d\u52a8\u53cd\u653f\u5e9c\u548c\u4eb2\u4fc4\u6297\u8bae\u6d3b\u52a8\u540e\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u96c7\u4f63\u519b\u548c\u519b\u961f\u5728\u5f53\u5730\u5206\u79bb\u4e3b\u4e49\u6c11\u5175\u7684\u652f\u6301\u4e0b\uff0c\u5bf9\u4e4c\u514b\u5170\u65b0\u653f\u5e9c\u53d1\u52a8\u4e86\u6218\u4e89\uff0c[206]\u5c3d\u7ba1\u5927\u591a\u6570\u5c45\u6c11\u53cd\u5bf9\u4e4c\u514b\u5170\u5206\u88c2\u51fa\u53bb\u3002[207]\u5728\u5168\u56fd\u8303\u56f4\u5185\u53cd\u8150\u8d25\u6297\u8bae\u7684\u6d6a\u6f6e\u4e2d\uff0c[208] \u666e\u4eac\u5728 2018 \u5e74\u603b\u7edf\u9009\u4e3e\u4e2d\u518d\u6b21\u5f53\u9009\uff0c\u8fde\u7eed\u7b2c\u4e8c\u5c4a\u4efb\u671f\u3002[209]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In a major escalation of the conflict, Russia launched a full-scale\u00a0invasion of Ukraine<\/a>\u00a0on 24 February 2022.[210]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The invasion marked the largest\u00a0conventional war<\/a>\u00a0in Europe since World War\u00a0II,[211]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and was met with\u00a0international condemnation<\/a>,[212]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0as well as\u00a0expanded sanctions<\/a>\u00a0against Russia.[213]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u30112022 \u5e74 2 \u6708 24 \u65e5\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5bf9\u4e4c\u514b\u5170\u53d1\u52a8\u4e86\u5168\u9762\u5165\u4fb5\uff0c\u5bfc\u81f4\u51b2\u7a81\u5927\u5e45\u5347\u7ea7\u3002[210] \u8fd9\u6b21\u5165\u4fb5\u662f\u7b2c\u4e8c\u6b21\u4e16\u754c\u5927\u6218\u4ee5\u6765\u6b27\u6d32\u6700\u5927\u89c4\u6a21\u7684\u5e38\u89c4\u6218\u4e89\uff0c[211] \u906d\u5230\u56fd\u9645\u793e\u4f1a\u8c34\u8d23\uff0c[212] \u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u4e5f\u56e0\u6b64\u906d\u53d7\u4e86\u6269\u5927\u5236\u88c1\u3002[213]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\n
\u56fe2-3\uff08\u53d1\u5e03\u4e8e\u77e5\u4e4e\u60f3\u6cd5\uff09<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

As a result, Russia was expelled from the\u00a0Council of Europe<\/a>\u00a0in March,[214]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and was suspended from the\u00a0United Nations Human Rights Council<\/a>\u00a0in April.[215]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In September, following successful Ukrainian counteroffensives,[216]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Putin announced a “partial mobilisation<\/a>“, Russia’s first mobilisation since\u00a0Operation Barbarossa<\/a>.[217]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In the end of September, Putin proclaimed the\u00a0annexation of four partially-occupied Ukrainian regions<\/a>, the largest annexation in Europe since World War\u00a0II.[218]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Putin and Russian-installed leaders signed treaties of accession, internationally unrecognised and widely\u00a0denounced as illegal<\/a>.[218]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0As a result of the invasion, hundreds of thousands of people are\u00a0estimated to have been killed or injured<\/a>,[219]<\/a>[220]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0while Russia has been accused of\u00a0numerous war crimes<\/a>.[221]<\/a>[222]<\/a>[223]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The war in Ukraine has further exacerbated Russia’s\u00a0demographic crisis<\/a>.[224]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u7ed3\u679c\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u4e8e 3 \u6708\u88ab\u9010\u51fa\u6b27\u6d32\u59d4\u5458\u4f1a[214]\uff0c\u5e76\u4e8e 4 \u6708\u88ab\u6682\u505c\u5728\u8054\u5408\u56fd\u4eba\u6743\u7406\u4e8b\u4f1a\u7684\u4f1a\u5458\u8d44\u683c\u3002[215] 9 \u6708\uff0c\u5728\u4e4c\u514b\u5170\u6210\u529f\u53cd\u653b\u540e[216]\uff0c\u666e\u4eac\u5ba3\u5e03\u201c\u90e8\u5206\u52a8\u5458\u201d\uff0c\u8fd9\u662f\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u81ea\u5df4\u5df4\u7f57\u8428\u884c\u52a8\u4ee5\u6765\u7684\u9996\u6b21\u52a8\u5458\u3002[217] 9 \u6708\u5e95\uff0c\u666e\u4eac\u5ba3\u5e03\u541e\u5e76\u56db\u4e2a\u90e8\u5206\u88ab\u5360\u9886\u7684\u4e4c\u514b\u5170\u5730\u533a\uff0c\u8fd9\u662f\u81ea\u4e8c\u6218\u4ee5\u6765\u6b27\u6d32\u6700\u5927\u89c4\u6a21\u7684\u541e\u5e76\u884c\u52a8\u3002[218] \u666e\u4eac\u548c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u6276\u690d\u7684\u9886\u5bfc\u4eba\u7b7e\u7f72\u4e86\u52a0\u5165\u6761\u7ea6\uff0c\u4f46\u8fd9\u4e9b\u6761\u7ea6\u672a\u5f97\u5230\u56fd\u9645\u793e\u4f1a\u627f\u8ba4\uff0c\u5e76\u88ab\u5e7f\u6cdb\u8c34\u8d23\u4e3a\u975e\u6cd5\u3002[218] \u636e\u4f30\u8ba1\uff0c\u5165\u4fb5\u9020\u6210\u6570\u5341\u4e07\u4eba\u4f24\u4ea1[219][220]\uff0c\u800c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5219\u88ab\u6307\u63a7\u72af\u6709\u591a\u9879\u6218\u4e89\u7f6a\u3002[221][222][223]\u4e4c\u514b\u5170\u6218\u4e89\u8fdb\u4e00\u6b65\u52a0\u5267\u4e86\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u7684\u4eba\u53e3\u5371\u673a\u3002[224]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In June 2023, the\u00a0Wagner Group<\/a>, a private military contractor fighting for Russia in Ukraine, declared an\u00a0open rebellion against the Russian Ministry of Defence<\/a>, capturing\u00a0Rostov-on-Don<\/a>, before beginning a march on Moscow. However, after negotiations between Wagner and the Belarusian government, the rebellion was called off.[225]<\/a>[226]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The leader of the rebellion,\u00a0Yevgeny Prigozhin<\/a>, was later\u00a0killed in a plane crash<\/a>.[227]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Putin won his third consecutive term in the\u00a02024 presidential election<\/a>, by winning 88% of the vote, the highest percentage in a presidential election in post-Soviet Russia.[228]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u30112023\u5e746\u6708\uff0c\u5728\u4e4c\u514b\u5170\u4e3a\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u4f5c\u6218\u7684\u79c1\u4eba\u519b\u4e8b\u627f\u5305\u5546\u74e6\u683c\u7eb3\u96c6\u56e2\u5ba3\u5e03\u516c\u5f00\u53cd\u6297\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u56fd\u9632\u90e8\uff0c\u5360\u9886\u4e86\u987f\u6cb3\u7554\u7f57\u65af\u6258\u592b\uff0c\u5e76\u5f00\u59cb\u5411\u83ab\u65af\u79d1\u8fdb\u519b\u3002\u7136\u800c\uff0c\u5728\u74e6\u683c\u7eb3\u96c6\u56e2\u4e0e\u767d\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u653f\u5e9c\u8c08\u5224\u540e\uff0c\u53db\u4e71\u88ab\u53eb\u505c\u3002[225][226] \u53db\u4e71\u9886\u5bfc\u4eba\u53f6\u592b\u6839\u5c3c\u00b7\u666e\u91cc\u6208\u6d25\u540e\u6765\u5728\u4e00\u6b21\u98de\u673a\u5931\u4e8b\u4e2d\u4e27\u751f\u3002[227] \u666e\u4eac\u57282024\u5e74\u603b\u7edf\u5927\u9009\u4e2d\u8d62\u5f97\u4e8688%\u7684\u9009\u7968\uff0c\u8fd9\u662f\u540e\u82cf\u8054\u65f6\u671f\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u603b\u7edf\u9009\u4e3e\u4e2d\u7684\u6700\u9ad8\u5f97\u7968\u7387\uff0c\u8d62\u5f97\u4e86\u4ed6\u7684\u7b2c\u4e09\u4e2a\u8fde\u4efb\u3002[228]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

3. \u5730\u7406 | Geography<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Main article:\u00a0Geography of Russia<\/a> \/ \u4e3b\u6761\u76ee\uff1a\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5730\u7406<\/a><\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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\u56fe3-1\u81f33-3\uff08\u53d1\u5e03\u4e8e\u77e5\u4e4e\u60f3\u6cd5\uff09<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

Russia’s vast landmass stretches over the easternmost part of Europe and the northernmost part of Asia.[229]<\/a>[230]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0It spans the northernmost edge of\u00a0Eurasia<\/a>\u00a0and has the world’s\u00a0fourth-longest coastline<\/a>, of over 37,653\u00a0km (23,396\u00a0mi).[<\/a>Russia has an additional 850\u00a0km (530\u00a0mi) of coastline along the\u00a0Caspian Sea<\/a>, which is the world’s largest inland body of water, and has been variously classified as a sea or a lake.[231]<\/a><\/sup>][232]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Russia lies between latitudes\u00a041\u00b0<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a082\u00b0 N<\/a>, and longitudes\u00a019\u00b0 E<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0169\u00b0 W<\/a>, extending some 9,000\u00a0km (5,600\u00a0mi) east to west, and 2,500 to 4,000\u00a0km (1,600 to 2,500\u00a0mi) north to south.[233]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Russia, by landmass, is larger than three continents,[Russia, by land area, is larger than the continents of\u00a0Australia,\u00a0Antarctica, and Europe, although it covers a large part of the latter itself. Its land area could be roughly compared to that of South America.]<\/sup>\u00a0and has the same surface area as\u00a0Pluto<\/a>.[234]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5e7f\u88a4\u7684\u9646\u5730\u6a2a\u8de8\u6b27\u6d32\u6700\u4e1c\u90e8\u548c\u4e9a\u6d32\u6700\u5317\u90e8\u3002[229][230] \u5b83\u4f4d\u4e8e\u6b27\u4e9a\u5927\u9646\u7684\u6700\u5317\u7aef\uff0c\u62e5\u6709\u4e16\u754c\u7b2c\u56db\u957f\u7684\u6d77\u5cb8\u7ebf\uff0c\u603b\u957f\u5ea6\u8d85\u8fc737,653\u516c\u91cc\uff0823,396\u82f1\u91cc\uff09\u3002[\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5728\u91cc\u6d77\u6cbf\u5cb8\u8fd8\u62e5\u6709\u989d\u5916\u7684850\u516c\u91cc\uff08530\u82f1\u91cc\uff09\u6d77\u5cb8\u7ebf\u3002\u91cc\u6d77\u662f\u4e16\u754c\u4e0a\u6700\u5927\u7684\u5185\u9646\u6c34\u57df\uff0c\u65e2\u88ab\u79f0\u4e3a\u201c\u6d77\u201d\uff0c\u4e5f\u88ab\u5f52\u7c7b\u4e3a\u201c\u6e56\u201d\u3002[231]]<\/sup>[232] \u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u7684\u5730\u7406\u5750\u6807\u4ecb\u4e8e\u5317\u7eac41\u00b0\u81f382\u00b0\u3001\u4e1c\u7ecf19\u00b0\u81f3\u897f\u7ecf169\u00b0\u4e4b\u95f4\uff0c\u4e1c\u897f\u65b9\u5411\u7ef5\u5ef6\u7ea69,000\u516c\u91cc\uff085,600\u82f1\u91cc\uff09\uff0c\u5357\u5317\u65b9\u5411\u5bbd\u8fbe2,500\u81f34,000\u516c\u91cc\uff081,600\u81f32,500\u82f1\u91cc\uff09\u3002[233] \u4ece\u9646\u5730\u9762\u79ef\u6765\u770b\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u6bd4\u4e09\u4e2a\u5927\u6d32\u8fd8\u8981\u5e7f\u9614[\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u7684\u9646\u5730\u9762\u79ef\u8d85\u8fc7\u4e86\u6fb3\u5927\u5229\u4e9a\u3001\u5357\u6781\u6d32\u548c\u6b27\u6d32\u8fd9\u4e09\u4e2a\u5927\u6d32\uff0c\u5c3d\u7ba1\u5b83\u672c\u8eab\u5360\u636e\u4e86\u6b27\u6d32\u7684\u5f88\u5927\u4e00\u90e8\u5206\u3002\u4ece\u9646\u5730\u9762\u79ef\u6765\u770b\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u7684\u5927\u5c0f\u5927\u81f4\u76f8\u5f53\u4e8e\u5357\u7f8e\u6d32\u3002]<\/sup>\uff0c\u5176\u8868\u9762\u79ef\u4e0e\u51a5\u738b\u661f\u76f8\u5f53\u3002[234]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Russia has nine major mountain ranges, and they are found along the\u00a0southernmost regions<\/a>, which share a significant portion of the\u00a0Caucasus Mountains<\/a>\u00a0(containing\u00a0Mount Elbrus<\/a>, which at 5,642\u00a0m (18,510\u00a0ft) is the\u00a0highest peak<\/a>\u00a0in Russia and Europe);[6]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0the\u00a0Altai<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Sayan Mountains<\/a>\u00a0in\u00a0Siberia<\/a>; and in the\u00a0East Siberian Mountains<\/a>\u00a0and the\u00a0Kamchatka Peninsula<\/a>\u00a0in the\u00a0Russian Far East<\/a>\u00a0(containing\u00a0Klyuchevskaya Sopka<\/a>, which at 4,750\u00a0m (15,584\u00a0ft) is the highest\u00a0active volcano<\/a>\u00a0in Eurasia).[235]<\/a>[229]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The\u00a0Ural Mountains<\/a>, running north to south through the country’s west, are rich in mineral resources, and form the\u00a0traditional boundary between Europe and Asia<\/a>.[236]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The\u00a0lowest point in Russia and Europe<\/a>, is situated at the head of the Caspian Sea, where the\u00a0Caspian Depression<\/a>\u00a0reaches some 29 metres (95.1\u00a0ft) below sea level.[237]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5883\u5185\u6709\u4e5d\u5ea7\u4e3b\u8981\u5c71\u8109\uff0c\u5927\u591a\u5206\u5e03\u4e8e\u5357\u90e8\u5730\u533a\u3002\u5176\u4e2d\u5305\u62ec\u9ad8\u52a0\u7d22\u5c71\u8109\u7684\u5927\u7247\u533a\u57df\uff08\u5305\u542b\u6d77\u62d45,642\u7c73\uff0818,510\u82f1\u5c3a\uff09\u7684\u5384\u5c14\u5e03\u9c81\u58eb\u5c71\uff0c\u8fd9\u662f\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u53ca\u6b27\u6d32\u7684\u6700\u9ad8\u5cf0\uff09\uff1b[6] \u897f\u4f2f\u5229\u4e9a\u5730\u533a\u7684\u963f\u5c14\u6cf0\u5c71\u8109\u548c\u8428\u5f66\u5cad\uff1b\u4ee5\u53ca\u4f4d\u4e8e\u4e1c\u897f\u4f2f\u5229\u4e9a\u5c71\u5730\u548c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u8fdc\u4e1c\u5730\u533a\u7684\u582a\u5bdf\u52a0\u534a\u5c9b\uff08\u5305\u542b\u6d77\u62d44,750\u7c73\uff0815,584\u82f1\u5c3a\uff09\u7684\u514b\u67f3\u5207\u592b\u706b\u5c71\uff0c\u662f\u6b27\u4e9a\u5927\u9646\u6700\u9ad8\u7684\u6d3b\u706b\u5c71\uff09\u3002[235][229]\u4e4c\u62c9\u5c14\u5c71\u8109\u81ea\u5317\u5411\u5357\u8d2f\u7a7f\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u897f\u90e8\uff0c\u77ff\u4ea7\u8d44\u6e90\u4e30\u5bcc\uff0c\u4f20\u7edf\u4e0a\u88ab\u8ba4\u4e3a\u662f\u6b27\u6d32\u4e0e\u4e9a\u6d32\u4e4b\u95f4\u7684\u5206\u754c\u7ebf\u3002[236] \u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u53ca\u6b27\u6d32\u7684\u6700\u4f4e\u70b9\u4f4d\u4e8e\u91cc\u6d77\u5317\u90e8\u7684\u91cc\u6d77\u6d3c\u5730\uff08Caspian Depression\uff09\uff0c\u6d77\u62d4\u4f4e\u4e8e\u6d77\u5e73\u9762\u7ea629\u7c73\uff0895.1\u82f1\u5c3a\uff09\u3002[237]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Russia, as one of the world’s only three countries\u00a0bordering three oceans<\/a>,[230]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0has links with a great number of seas.[Russia borders, clockwise, to its southwest: the\u00a0Black Sea\u00a0and the\u00a0Sea of Azov, to its west: the\u00a0Baltic Sea, to its north: the\u00a0Barents Sea\u00a0(White Sea,\u00a0Pechora Sea), the\u00a0Kara Sea, the\u00a0Laptev Sea, and the\u00a0East Siberian Sea, to its northeast: the\u00a0Chukchi Sea\u00a0and the\u00a0Bering Sea, and to its southeast: the\u00a0Sea of Okhotsk\u00a0and the\u00a0Sea of Japan.][229]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Its major islands and archipelagos include\u00a0Novaya Zemlya<\/a>,\u00a0Franz Josef Land<\/a>,\u00a0Severnaya Zemlya<\/a>, the\u00a0New Siberian Islands<\/a>,\u00a0Wrangel Island<\/a>, the\u00a0Kuril Islands<\/a>\u00a0(four of which are\u00a0disputed with Japan<\/a>), and\u00a0Sakhalin<\/a>.[238]<\/a>[239]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The\u00a0Diomede Islands<\/a>, administered by Russia and the United States, are just 3.8\u00a0km (2.4\u00a0mi) apart;[240]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and\u00a0Kunashir Island<\/a>\u00a0of the Kuril Islands is merely 20\u00a0km (12.4\u00a0mi) from\u00a0Hokkaido<\/a>, Japan.[2]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u662f\u4e16\u754c\u4e0a\u4ec5\u6709\u7684\u4e09\u4e2a\u6fd2\u4e34\u4e09\u5927\u6d0b\u7684\u56fd\u5bb6\u4e4b\u4e00\uff0c[230] \u4e0e\u4f17\u591a\u6d77\u57df\u76f8\u8fde\u3002[\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u7684\u56fd\u571f\u6309\u987a\u65f6\u9488\u65b9\u5411\u4f9d\u6b21\u4e3a\uff1a\u897f\u5357\u90bb\u9ed1\u6d77\u3001\u4e9a\u901f\u6d77\uff0c\u897f\u90bb\u6ce2\u7f57\u7684\u6d77\uff0c\u5317\u90bb\u5df4\u4f26\u652f\u6d77\uff08\u767d\u6d77\u3001\u4f2f\u671d\u62c9\u6d77\uff09\u3001\u5580\u62c9\u6d77\u3001\u62c9\u666e\u6377\u592b\u6d77\u3001\u4e1c\u897f\u4f2f\u5229\u4e9a\u6d77\uff0c\u4e1c\u5317\u90bb\u695a\u79d1\u5947\u6d77\u3001\u767d\u4ee4\u6d77\uff0c\u4e1c\u5357\u90bb\u9102\u970d\u6b21\u514b\u6d77\u3001\u65e5\u672c\u6d77\u3002]<\/sup>[229] \u5176\u4e3b\u8981\u5c9b\u5c7f\u548c\u7fa4\u5c9b\u5305\u62ec\u65b0\u5730\u5c9b\u3001\u6cd5\u5170\u58eb\u7ea6\u745f\u592b\u5730\u7fa4\u5c9b\u3001\u5317\u5730\u7fa4\u5c9b\u3001\u65b0\u897f\u4f2f\u5229\u4e9a\u7fa4\u5c9b\u3001\u5f17\u5170\u683c\u5c14\u5c9b\u3001\u5343\u5c9b\u7fa4\u5c9b\uff08\u5176\u4e2d\u56db\u4e2a\u5c9b\u5c7f\u4e0e\u65e5\u672c\u5b58\u5728\u4e89\u8bae\uff09\u3001\u4ee5\u53ca\u8428\u54c8\u6797\u5c9b\uff08\u5e93\u9875\u5c9b\uff09\u3002[238][239] \u8fea\u5965\u7c73\u5fb7\u7fa4\u5c9b\u7531\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u548c\u7f8e\u56fd\u5206\u522b\u63a7\u5236\uff0c\u4e24\u5c9b\u4e4b\u95f4\u4ec5\u76f8\u8ddd3.8\u516c\u91cc\uff082.4\u82f1\u91cc\uff09\uff1b[240] \u5343\u5c9b\u7fa4\u5c9b\u4e2d\u7684\u56fd\u540e\u5c9b\u8ddd\u79bb\u65e5\u672c\u5317\u6d77\u9053\u4e5f\u53ea\u670920\u516c\u91cc\uff0812.4\u82f1\u91cc\uff09\u3002[2]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Russia, home of over 100,000 rivers,[230]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0has one of the world’s largest surface water resources, with its lakes containing approximately one-quarter of the world’s liquid\u00a0fresh water<\/a>.[229]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Lake Baikal<\/a>, the largest and most prominent among Russia’s fresh water bodies, is the world’s deepest, purest, oldest and most capacious fresh water lake, containing over one-fifth of the world’s fresh surface water.[241]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Ladoga<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Onega<\/a>\u00a0in\u00a0northwestern Russia<\/a>\u00a0are two of the\u00a0largest lakes in Europe<\/a>.[230]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Russia is second only to Brazil by\u00a0total renewable water resources<\/a>.[242]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The\u00a0Volga<\/a>\u00a0in western Russia, widely regarded as Russia’s national river, is the\u00a0longest river<\/a>\u00a0in Europe and forms the\u00a0Volga Delta<\/a>, the largest\u00a0river delta<\/a>\u00a0in the continent.[243]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The Siberian rivers of\u00a0Ob<\/a>,\u00a0Yenisey<\/a>,\u00a0Lena<\/a>, and\u00a0Amur<\/a>\u00a0are among the world’s\u00a0longest rivers<\/a>.[244]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5883\u5185\u62e5\u6709\u8d85\u8fc710\u4e07\u6761\u6cb3\u6d41\uff0c[230] \u662f\u5168\u7403\u5730\u8868\u6c34\u8d44\u6e90\u6700\u4e30\u5bcc\u7684\u56fd\u5bb6\u4e4b\u4e00\uff0c\u5176\u6e56\u6cca\u4e2d\u50a8\u5b58\u7740\u7ea6\u5360\u4e16\u754c\u56db\u5206\u4e4b\u4e00\u7684\u6db2\u6001\u6de1\u6c34\u3002[229] \u8d1d\u52a0\u5c14\u6e56\u662f\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u6700\u5927\u7684\u6de1\u6c34\u6c34\u4f53\uff0c\u4e5f\u662f\u4e16\u754c\u4e0a\u6700\u6df1\u3001\u6700\u7eaf\u51c0\u3001\u6700\u53e4\u8001\u3001\u84c4\u6c34\u91cf\u6700\u5927\u7684\u6de1\u6c34\u6e56\uff0c\u50a8\u5b58\u4e86\u5168\u7403\u8d85\u8fc7\u4e94\u5206\u4e4b\u4e00\u7684\u5730\u8868\u6de1\u6c34\u3002[241] \u4f4d\u4e8e\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u897f\u5317\u90e8\u7684\u62c9\u591a\u52a0\u6e56\u548c\u5965\u6d85\u52a0\u6e56\u5219\u662f\u6b27\u6d32\u6700\u5927\u7684\u4e24\u4e2a\u6e56\u6cca\u3002[230] \u6309\u53ef\u518d\u751f\u6de1\u6c34\u8d44\u6e90\u603b\u91cf\u8ba1\u7b97\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u4ec5\u6b21\u4e8e\u5df4\u897f\u3002[242]\u4f0f\u5c14\u52a0\u6cb3\u4f4d\u4e8e\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u897f\u90e8\uff0c\u88ab\u5e7f\u6cdb\u89c6\u4e3a\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u7684\u201c\u6bcd\u4eb2\u6cb3\u201d\uff0c\u662f\u6b27\u6d32\u6700\u957f\u7684\u6cb3\u6d41\uff0c\u5e76\u5f62\u6210\u4e86\u6b27\u6d32\u6700\u5927\u7684\u6cb3\u6d41\u4e09\u89d2\u6d32\u2014\u2014\u4f0f\u5c14\u52a0\u4e09\u89d2\u6d32\u3002[243] \u897f\u4f2f\u5229\u4e9a\u5730\u533a\u7684\u9102\u6bd5\u6cb3\u3001\u53f6\u5c3c\u585e\u4f0a\u6cb3\u3001\u52d2\u62ff\u6cb3\u548c\u963f\u7a46\u5c14\u6cb3\uff08\u9ed1\u9f99\u6c5f\uff09\u5219\u662f\u4e16\u754c\u4e0a\u6700\u957f\u7684\u6cb3\u6d41\u4e4b\u4e00\u3002[244]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

3.1 \u6c14\u5019 | Climate<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Main article:\u00a0Climate of Russia<\/a>\u3010\u4e3b\u6761\u76ee\uff1a\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u7684\u6c14\u5019\u3011<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u53c2\u89c1\uff1a\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u57ce\u5e02\u51ac\u5b63\u5e73\u5747\u6c14\u6e29\u5217\u8868<\/a><\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\n
\u56fe3-4\uff08\u53d1\u5e03\u4e8e\u77e5\u4e4e\u60f3\u6cd5\uff09<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

The size of Russia and the remoteness of many of its areas from the sea result in the dominance of the\u00a0humid continental climate<\/a>\u00a0throughout most of the country, except for the tundra and the extreme southwest. Mountain ranges in the south and east obstruct the flow of warm air masses from the\u00a0Indian<\/a>\u00a0and Pacific oceans, while the\u00a0European Plain<\/a>\u00a0spanning its west and north opens it to influence from the Atlantic and Arctic oceans.[229]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Most of northwest Russia and Siberia have a\u00a0subarctic climate<\/a>, with extremely severe winters in the inner regions of northeast Siberia (mostly\u00a0Sakha<\/a>, where the Northern\u00a0Pole of Cold<\/a>\u00a0is located with the record low temperature of \u221271.2\u00a0\u00b0C or \u221296.2\u00a0\u00b0F),[238]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and more moderate winters elsewhere. Russia’s vast coastline along the Arctic Ocean and the\u00a0Russian Arctic islands<\/a>\u00a0have a\u00a0polar climate<\/a>.[229]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5e45\u5458\u8fbd\u9614\uff0c\u8bb8\u591a\u5730\u533a\u8fdc\u79bb\u6d77\u6d0b\uff0c\u5bfc\u81f4\u5168\u56fd\u5927\u90e8\u5206\u5730\u533a\u4ee5\u6e7f\u6da6\u5927\u9646\u6027\u6c14\u5019\u4e3a\u4e3b\uff0c\u4ec5\u6781\u5730\u82d4\u539f\u5730\u533a\u548c\u897f\u5357\u90e8\u6781\u7aef\u5730\u533a\u4f8b\u5916\u3002\u5357\u90e8\u548c\u4e1c\u90e8\u7684\u5c71\u8109\u963b\u6321\u4e86\u6765\u81ea\u5370\u5ea6\u6d0b\u548c\u592a\u5e73\u6d0b\u7684\u6696\u7a7a\u6c14\u8fdb\u5165\uff0c\u800c\u897f\u90e8\u548c\u5317\u90e8\u6a2a\u8d2f\u6b27\u6d32\u5e73\u539f\u5219\u4f7f\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u6613\u53d7\u5927\u897f\u6d0b\u548c\u5317\u51b0\u6d0b\u6c14\u6d41\u7684\u5f71\u54cd\u3002[229] \u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u897f\u5317\u90e8\u548c\u897f\u4f2f\u5229\u4e9a\u5927\u90e8\u5206\u5730\u533a\u5c5e\u4e8e\u526f\u6781\u5730\u6c14\u5019\u3002\u4e1c\u5317\u897f\u4f2f\u5229\u4e9a\u5730\u533a\uff08\u4e3b\u8981\u662f\u8428\u54c8\u5171\u548c\u56fd\uff09\u51ac\u5b63\u6781\u5176\u4e25\u5bd2\uff0c\u90a3\u91cc\u662f\u201c\u5317\u534a\u7403\u5bd2\u6781\u201d\u6240\u5728\u5730\uff0c\u66fe\u8bb0\u5f55\u5230\u6700\u4f4e\u6c14\u6e29\u4e3a\u221271.2\u00b0C\uff08\u221296.2\u00b0F\uff09\uff1b\u5176\u4ed6\u5730\u533a\u7684\u51ac\u5b63\u5219\u76f8\u5bf9\u6e29\u548c\u4e00\u4e9b\u3002[238]\u6cbf\u5317\u51b0\u6d0b\u7684\u5e7f\u9614\u6d77\u5cb8\u7ebf\u4ee5\u53ca\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u6240\u5c5e\u7684\u5317\u6781\u5c9b\u5c7f\u5219\u5c5e\u4e8e\u6781\u5730\u6c14\u5019\u3002[229]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The coastal part of\u00a0Krasnodar Krai<\/a>\u00a0on the Black Sea, most notably\u00a0Sochi<\/a>, and some coastal and interior strips of the\u00a0North Caucasus<\/a>\u00a0possess a\u00a0humid subtropical climate<\/a>\u00a0with mild and wet winters.[229]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In many regions of East Siberia and the Russian Far East, winter is dry compared to summer, while other parts of the country experience more even precipitation across seasons. Winter precipitation in most parts of the country usually falls as snow. The westernmost parts of Kaliningrad Oblast and some parts in the south of Krasnodar Krai and the North Caucasus have an\u00a0oceanic climate<\/a>.[229]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The region along the Lower Volga and Caspian Sea coast, as well as some southernmost slivers of Siberia, possess a\u00a0semi-arid climate<\/a>.[245]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u514b\u62c9\u65af\u8bfa\u8fbe\u5c14\u8fb9\u7586\u533a\u6cbf\u9ed1\u6d77\u7684\u90e8\u5206\u5730\u533a\uff08\u5c24\u5176\u662f\u7d22\u5951\uff09\uff0c\u4ee5\u53ca\u5317\u9ad8\u52a0\u7d22\u7684\u4e00\u4e9b\u6cbf\u6d77\u548c\u5185\u9646\u5730\u5e26\u62e5\u6709\u6e7f\u6da6\u7684\u4e9a\u70ed\u5e26\u6c14\u5019<\/strong>\uff0c\u51ac\u5b63\u6e29\u548c\u591a\u96e8\u3002[229]\u5728\u4e1c\u897f\u4f2f\u5229\u4e9a\u548c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u8fdc\u4e1c\u5730\u533a\u7684\u8bb8\u591a\u5730\u65b9\uff0c\u51ac\u5b63\u964d\u6c34\u5c11\u4e8e\u590f\u5b63\uff1b\u800c\u56fd\u5185\u5176\u4ed6\u5730\u533a\u5219\u56db\u5b63\u964d\u6c34\u8f83\u4e3a\u5747\u5300\u3002\u5168\u56fd\u5927\u90e8\u5206\u5730\u533a\u7684\u51ac\u5b63\u964d\u6c34\u901a\u5e38\u4ee5\u964d\u96ea\u5f62\u5f0f\u51fa\u73b0\u3002\u52a0\u91cc\u5b81\u683c\u52d2\u5dde\u7684\u6700\u897f\u7aef\uff0c\u4ee5\u53ca\u514b\u62c9\u65af\u8bfa\u8fbe\u5c14\u8fb9\u7586\u533a\u5357\u90e8\u548c\u5317\u9ad8\u52a0\u7d22\u90e8\u5206\u5730\u533a\u5c5e\u4e8e\u6d77\u6d0b\u6027\u6c14\u5019<\/strong>\u3002[229] \u4f0f\u5c14\u52a0\u4e0b\u6e38\u6cbf\u5cb8\u4e0e\u91cc\u6d77\u6cbf\u5cb8\u5730\u533a\uff0c\u4ee5\u53ca\u897f\u4f2f\u5229\u4e9a\u6700\u5357\u7aef\u7684\u4e00\u4e9b\u72ed\u957f\u5730\u5e26\u5219\u5c5e\u4e8e\u534a\u5e72\u65f1\u6c14\u5019<\/strong>\u3002[245]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Throughout much of the territory, there are only two distinct seasons, winter and summer, as spring and autumn are usually brief.[229]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The coldest month is January (February on the coastline); the warmest is usually July. Great ranges of temperature are typical. In winter, temperatures get colder both from south to north and from west to east. Summers can be quite hot, even in Siberia.[246]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Climate change in Russia<\/a>\u00a0is causing more frequent\u00a0wildfires<\/a>,[247]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and thawing the country’s large expanse of\u00a0permafrost<\/a>.[248]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u5728\u5168\u56fd\u5927\u90e8\u5206\u5730\u533a\uff0c\u4e00\u5e74\u4e2d\u53ea\u6709\u4e24\u4e2a\u660e\u663e\u7684\u5b63\u8282\u2014\u2014\u51ac\u5b63\u548c\u590f\u5b63\uff0c\u6625\u5b63\u548c\u79cb\u5b63\u901a\u5e38\u975e\u5e38\u77ed\u6682\u3002[229] \u6700\u51b7\u7684\u6708\u4efd\u662f1\u6708\uff08\u6cbf\u6d77\u5730\u533a\u4e3a2\u6708\uff09\uff0c\u6700\u70ed\u7684\u6708\u4efd\u901a\u5e38\u662f7\u6708\u3002\u6c14\u6e29\u53d8\u5316\u5e45\u5ea6\u5de8\u5927\u662f\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u6c14\u5019\u7684\u5178\u578b\u7279\u5f81\u3002\u51ac\u5b63\u65f6\uff0c\u6c14\u6e29\u7531\u5357\u5411\u5317\u3001\u7531\u897f\u5411\u4e1c\u9010\u6e10\u964d\u4f4e\u3002\u590f\u5b63\u751a\u81f3\u5728\u897f\u4f2f\u5229\u4e9a\u4e5f\u53ef\u80fd\u76f8\u5f53\u708e\u70ed\u3002[246]\u6c14\u5019\u53d8\u5316<\/strong>\u6b63\u5728\u5bf9\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u4ea7\u751f\u663e\u8457\u5f71\u54cd\uff0c\u5bfc\u81f4\u68ee\u6797\u91ce\u706b\u53d1\u751f\u9891\u7387\u589e\u52a0\uff0c[247] \u5e76\u52a0\u901f\u4e86\u8be5\u56fd\u5927\u9762\u79ef\u6c38\u4e45\u51bb\u571f\u5c42\u7684\u878d\u5316\u3002[248]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

3.2 \u751f\u7269\u591a\u6837\u6027<\/strong> | Biodiversity<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Main article:\u00a0Wildlife of Russia<\/a>\u3010\u4e3b\u6761\u76ee\uff1a\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u7684\u91ce\u751f\u52a8\u7269\u3011<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

See also:\u00a0List of ecoregions in Russia<\/a>\u3010\u53c2\u89c1\uff1a\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u7684\u751f\u6001\u533a\u57df\u5217\u8868\u3011<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\n
\u56fe3-5\uff08\u53d1\u5e03\u4e8e\u77e5\u4e4e\u60f3\u6cd5\uff09<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

Russia, owing to its gigantic size, has diverse ecosystems, including\u00a0polar deserts<\/a>,\u00a0tundra<\/a>, forest tundra,\u00a0taiga<\/a>,\u00a0mixed and broadleaf forest<\/a>,\u00a0forest steppe<\/a>,\u00a0steppe<\/a>, semi-desert, and\u00a0subtropics<\/a>.[249]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0About half of Russia’s territory is forested,[6]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and it has the world’s largest area of forest,[250]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0which sequester some of the world’s highest amounts of\u00a0carbon dioxide<\/a>.[250]<\/a>[251]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u7531\u4e8e\u5176\u5de8\u5927\u7684\u9762\u79ef\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u62e5\u6709\u591a\u79cd\u591a\u6837\u7684\u751f\u6001\u7cfb\u7edf\uff0c\u5305\u62ec\u6781\u5730\u6c99\u6f20\u3001\u82d4\u539f\u3001\u68ee\u6797\u82d4\u539f\u3001\u6cf0\u52a0\u6797\uff08\u5317\u65b9\u9488\u53f6\u6797\uff09\u3001\u6df7\u4ea4\u6797\u548c\u9614\u53f6\u6797\u3001\u68ee\u6797\u8349\u539f\u3001\u8349\u539f\u3001\u534a\u8352\u6f20\u4ee5\u53ca\u4e9a\u70ed\u5e26\u5730\u533a\u3002[249] \u5927\u7ea6\u4e00\u534a\u7684\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u9886\u571f\u88ab\u68ee\u6797\u8986\u76d6\uff0c[6] \u62e5\u6709\u4e16\u754c\u4e0a\u9762\u79ef\u6700\u5927\u7684\u68ee\u6797\uff0c\u8fd9\u4e9b\u68ee\u6797\u56fa\u5b9a\u4e86\u5168\u7403\u76f8\u5f53\u4e00\u90e8\u5206\u7684\u4e8c\u6c27\u5316\u78b3\u3002[250][251]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Russian biodiversity includes 12,500 species of\u00a0vascular plants<\/a>, 2,200 species of\u00a0bryophytes<\/a>, about 3,000 species of\u00a0lichens<\/a>, 7,000\u20139,000 species of\u00a0algae<\/a>, and 20,000\u201325,000 species of fungi. Russian\u00a0fauna<\/a>\u00a0is composed of\u00a0320 species<\/a>\u00a0of\u00a0mammals<\/a>, over\u00a0732 species<\/a>\u00a0of birds, 75 species of reptiles, about 30 species of\u00a0amphibians<\/a>,\u00a0343 species<\/a>\u00a0of\u00a0freshwater fish<\/a>\u00a0(high\u00a0endemism<\/a>), approximately 1,500 species of\u00a0saltwater fishes<\/a>, 9 species of\u00a0cyclostomata<\/a>, and approximately 100\u2013150,000\u00a0invertebrates<\/a>\u00a0(high endemism).[249]<\/a>[252]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Approximately 1,100 rare and endangered plant and animal species are included in the\u00a0Russian Red Data Book<\/a>.[249]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u7684\u751f\u7269\u591a\u6837\u6027\u6781\u4e3a\u4e30\u5bcc\uff0c\u5305\u62ec\u7ea612,500\u79cd\u7ef4\u7ba1\u690d\u7269\u30012,200\u79cd\u82d4\u85d3\u690d\u7269\u3001\u7ea63,000\u79cd\u5730\u8863\u30017,000\u81f39,000\u79cd\u85fb\u7c7b\uff0c\u4ee5\u53ca20,000\u81f325,000\u79cd\u771f\u83cc\u3002\u52a8\u7269\u65b9\u9762\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u62e5\u6709320\u79cd\u54fa\u4e73\u52a8\u7269\u3001\u8d85\u8fc7732\u79cd\u9e1f\u7c7b\u300175\u79cd\u722c\u884c\u52a8\u7269\u3001\u7ea630\u79cd\u4e24\u6816\u52a8\u7269\u3001343\u79cd\u6de1\u6c34\u9c7c\u7c7b\uff08\u5177\u6709\u9ad8\u5ea6\u7279\u6709\u6027\uff09\u3001\u7ea61,500\u79cd\u6d77\u6c34\u9c7c\u7c7b\u30019\u79cd\u5706\u53e3\u52a8\u7269\uff0c\u4ee5\u53ca\u5927\u7ea610\u4e07\u81f315\u4e07\u79cd\u65e0\u810a\u690e\u52a8\u7269\uff08\u540c\u6837\u5177\u6709\u9ad8\u5ea6\u7279\u6709\u6027\uff09\u3002[249][252]\u76ee\u524d\uff0c\u7ea6\u67091,100\u79cd\u73cd\u7a00\u548c\u6fd2\u5371\u7684\u52a8\u690d\u7269\u88ab\u5217\u5165\u300a\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u7ea2\u76ae\u4e66\u300b\u3002[249]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Russia’s entirely natural ecosystems are conserved in nearly 15,000 specially protected natural territories of various statuses, occupying more than 10% of the country’s total area.[249]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0They include 45\u00a0biosphere reserves<\/a>,[253]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a064\u00a0national parks<\/a>, and 101\u00a0nature reserves<\/a>.[254]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Although in decline, the country still has many ecosystems which are still considered\u00a0intact forest<\/a>, mainly in the northern taiga areas, and the subarctic tundra of Siberia.[255]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Russia had a\u00a0Forest Landscape Integrity Index<\/a>\u00a0mean score of 9.02 in 2019, ranking 10th out of 172 countries, and the first ranked major nation globally.[256]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u4e3a\u4e86\u4fdd\u62a4\u5176\u7eaf\u5929\u7136\u7684\u751f\u6001\u7cfb\u7edf\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u8bbe\u7acb\u4e86\u8fd115,000\u4e2a\u4e0d\u540c\u4fdd\u62a4\u7ea7\u522b\u7684\u7279\u522b\u4fdd\u62a4\u533a\uff0c\u603b\u9762\u79ef\u8d85\u8fc7\u5168\u56fd\u56fd\u571f\u9762\u79ef\u768410%\u3002[249] \u8fd9\u4e9b\u4fdd\u62a4\u533a\u5305\u62ec45\u4e2a\u751f\u7269\u5708\u4fdd\u62a4\u533a\u3001[253] 64\u4e2a\u56fd\u5bb6\u516c\u56ed\uff0c\u4ee5\u53ca101\u4e2a\u81ea\u7136\u4fdd\u62a4\u533a\u3002[254]\u5c3d\u7ba1\u9762\u4e34\u538b\u529b\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u4ecd\u7136\u4fdd\u7559\u7740\u5927\u91cf\u5b8c\u6574\u7684\u81ea\u7136\u751f\u6001\u7cfb\u7edf\uff0c\u4e3b\u8981\u96c6\u4e2d\u5728\u5317\u90e8\u7684\u6cf0\u52a0\u6797\u5730\u533a\u4ee5\u53ca\u897f\u4f2f\u5229\u4e9a\u7684\u4e9a\u5317\u6781\u82d4\u539f\u5730\u5e26\u3002[255] \u6839\u636e2019\u5e74\u53d1\u5e03\u7684\u201c\u68ee\u6797\u666f\u89c2\u5b8c\u6574\u6027\u6307\u6570\u201d\uff08Forest Landscape Integrity Index\uff09\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u4ee59.02\u5206\u7684\u5e73\u5747\u5f97\u5206\u5728\u5168\u7403172\u4e2a\u56fd\u5bb6\u4e2d\u6392\u540d\u7b2c10\u4f4d\uff0c\u5e76\u5728\u4e16\u754c\u4e3b\u8981\u56fd\u5bb6\u4e2d\u6392\u540d\u7b2c\u4e00\u3002[256]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

4. \u653f\u5e9c\u548c\u653f\u6cbb | Government and politics<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Main article:\u00a0Politics of Russia<\/a> \/ \u4e3b\u6761\u76ee\uff1a\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u653f\u6cbb<\/a><\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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\u56fe4-1\u81f34-4\uff08\u53d1\u5e03\u4e8e\u77e5\u4e4e\u60f3\u6cd5\uff09<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

Russia, by constitution, is a\u00a0symmetric federal<\/a>\u00a0republic with a\u00a0semi-presidential system<\/a>, wherein\u00a0the president<\/a>\u00a0is the\u00a0head of state<\/a>,[257]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and the\u00a0prime minister<\/a>\u00a0is the\u00a0head of government<\/a>.[6]<\/a>[258]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0It is structured as a\u00a0multi-party<\/a>\u00a0representative democracy<\/a>,[258]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0with the federal government composed of three branches:[259]<\/a><\/sup>
\u3010\u53c2\u8003\u8bd1\u6587\u3011\u6839\u636e\u5baa\u6cd5\uff0c\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u662f\u4e00\u4e2a\u5b9e\u884c\u534a\u603b\u7edf\u5236\u7684\u5bf9\u79f0\u8054\u90a6\u5171\u548c\u56fd\uff0c\u603b\u7edf\u662f\u56fd\u5bb6\u5143\u9996[257]\uff0c\u603b\u7406\u662f\u653f\u5e9c\u9996\u8111\u3002[6][258]\u4fc4\u7f57\u65af\u5b9e\u884c\u591a\u515a\u4ee3\u8bae\u5236\u6c11\u4e3b\u653f\u4f53\uff0c[258]\u8054\u90a6\u653f\u5e9c\u7531\u4e09\u4e2a\u90e8\u95e8\u7ec4\u6210\uff1a[259]<\/p>\n\n\n\n